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[Full title: Introduction: Musical instruments in India and earliest references to them in Sanskrit literature]

Art and Aesthetics form an integral part of India's rich cultural heritage. They developed according to the principles laid down in tradition. The tradition is represented by age-old texts composed and sometimes complied from time to time. Though the texts prescribe welldirected rules to be followed, they also allow ample scope for the exhibition of one's own imagination and individual talents. Thus, both the theory and practice of art forms flourished side by side in India from very early times. Sanskrit, being the mother of most of the Indian languages, has been the medium of expression for majority of the traditional arts irrespective of the region where a particular form of art flourished. These texts are called Laksanagranthas, since they lay down rules. There are quite a large number of Laksanagranthas with respect to music and dance in Sanskrit. The Scientific and systematic study of art forms, their complimentary forms and their classifications are dealt with meticulously in these Laksanagranthas. Apart from these Laksanagranthas, which were written by authors to enunciate the special principles to be adhered to, we have the vast Sanskrit literature, which throws light on almost all art forms and aesthetic applications.

2 References to art forms especially with respect to music and dance are seen even in the Vedas, the earliest source of Indian literature, which testifies to the fact that art and aesthetics flourished, in some form or other even during Vedic times. Rg Vedic seers knew that song is at its best, when seven syllables (or notes) are brought together in octave under strictly defined rules and order, and that the song rises in pitch (aroham) and falls (avaroham). pamca padani rupah anu aroham catuspada anu emi vratena | aksarena prati mime etam rtasya nabhau adhi sam punami || Rg Veda 10.13.3 The ascending (aroham) and descending (patim) which the Rsi talks of here are the rising and falling cadence of notes, which as we know are seven in number. Five notes take the song from the base up, and the same place is reached by falling back by four notes, which is the musical rule here. The sacred syllable by which the purification (of the music) is measured, that is to say that by which the correctness of the tone sound is judged, is what the Rsi says, 'Sa' of 'sam punami'. These rules and description of structure of the meter and of notesound are exactly in accordance with the Indian classical system, where the notes in the ascending order or sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha and ni, and another sa, added at the end to complete the octave and provide the commencing point for the descent 'avaroham'. Thus we have sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha, ni, sa.

3 Vedic literature consisting of the four Vedas, the Pratisakhyas, the Siksa - sutras, the Brahmanas, the Aranyakas and the Upanisads, works on Grammar like those of Panini and Patanjali lay emphasis on the aspect of sound which is fundamental to music also. The great epics, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, the Puranas, the Mahakavyas, Dramas, Prose, Campu, Fables and Devotional literature - all contain references to Music. Music is almost synonymous with Musical Instruments. Musical Instruments form an integral part of music, both as accompanying instruments as well as main instruments on appropriate occasions. Musical instruments have played an important role in the civilization of man since every action of the World and its creation has a rhythmic background. All activities of life such as walking running, working, speaking etc. has a rhythm. The heartbeat has a rhythm and if the rhythm misses a beat, it is dangerous. Rhythm is indeed the very essence of life. The entire Indian Philosophy centers around the mystic syllable of 'Om'. The oldest instrument is the human body itself, particularly the voice. The musical texts describe it as the Gatra Vina. With regard to Musical instruments, India possesses a large number of varieties of various kinds: Vina, Venu, Mrdanga, Panava, Dundubhi and Damaru are mentioned so often, that they became common household terms.

4 Rg Veda refer to instruments like Nali (10.135.7), Vana ( 9.97.8), Aghati (10.146.2), Dundubhi (1.28.5), Bakura (1.117.21), Vamsa (1.10.1), Karkari (2.43.3), etc whose references are given in Chapter III. RRg Veda mentions Vina to be played while chanting the Samans. In Rg Veda, Vana is quoted often. Sayana explains it as " vanam sata - sankhabhi stantribhiryuktam vina visesam dhamante vadayante " meaning that the Vana was an instrument with hundred strings. taditsadhasthamabhi caru didhaya gavo yacchasanvahatum na dhenavah | mata yanmantuyuthasya puvyabhi vanasya saptadhaturijjanah || Rg Veda - 10.32.4 Shine, Indra, upon this elegant chaser of sacrifice when our praises desire your approach; since the praise of the worshiper precedes the adoration, this person accompanied by the seven officiated priests is offering the prayers. Sayana explains "vanasya vadyasya sapta dhatuh nisadadi sapta svaropeto janah abhi gaccheti tadvat tadgunopetam ". It is probable that sapta dhatuh signifies the seven tones that were produced in the hundred strings of the Vina Vana.

5 Rg Veda speaks of the seven svaras comparing with astrological zodiacs, for the wheel of Surya, which is ageless and blemish less as having twelve spokes. dvadasaram na hi tajjaraya varvarti cakram paridyamrtasya | Rg Veda I.164.11 The twelve spokes are spoken here to be the twelve-svara sthanas, while the seven horses are the sapta svaras. In short, it indicates that the samans are sung in the seven svaras in twelve sthanas. imam rathamadhi ye sapta tasthuh saptacakram sapta vahantyasvah | sapta svasaro abhisannavante yatra gavam nihita sapta nama | Rg Veda I.164.3 The seven who on the seven-wheeled car are mounted have seven in tale, which draw horses, them onward. Seven Sisters utter songs of praise together, in whom the names of the seven Cows are treasured. In the Trayodasa Pathalam of Rk Pratisakhya, the seven Yamans (corresponding to seven svaras) and the three Vrittis are mentioned. Further, the three Vrittis (layas) are mentioned for the speaking words. tisro vrttipadisanti vaco | famitadi qeyki a gaia 11 Rk Pratisakhya - Siksa Pathalam - XIII-46 The sound has three modes of speed such as Slow, Intermediate and Quick (fast), which may be called the tempo.

sadja, Sayana explains the seven Yamans as the seven svaras rsabha, gandhara, madhyama, pancama, dhaivata and nisada - which are called svaras in musical texts. Likewise in Samans their respective names as krsta, prathama, dvitiya, tritiya, caturtha, mandra and atisvarya, which are the seven Yamans. ye ye sapta svarah satjarsabhagadharamadhyamapancamadhaivatanisadah svarah iti gandharavavede samamnatah | tatha samasu krstaprathamadvitiyatrtiyacaturthamandratisvaryah iti te yama nama veditavyah || In Vajasenayi Pratisakhya 1 - 125, the various modulations of the svaras are given as to be soft and softest, which is the strength of them. sarvatrsno abhinihitah praslistastadanantaram | tato mrdutarau svarau jatya ksaiprabhau smrtau || tato mrdutarah svarah tairovyanjanaucyate | padavrtto mrdutamah tu etatsvarabalabalam || With respect to the dynamics of the svaras, which are to be produced like the uttering of vowels and consonants, there are two methods such as soft and softest. Indeed that is the strength of these svaras. Taittriya Pratisakhya enlists the names of svaras while explaining about the parts of speech in the production of sound through various parts of the mouth (Asya karana prayatnah) as follows: iti svaranamadheyani | ksyaipra nityayordrdhatarah | abhinihite ca | pralistapratihatayormrdutarah | tairovyanjana padavrttayoralpatarah- asyakarana prayatnah || Taittriya Pratisakhya - Ch-20 - sutra 8-12 6

7 Further it mentions the sound and breath coming out through various parts of the body, when the throat or mouth is closed or kept open. tasya prati srutkani bhavantyurah kanthah siro mukham nasike iti || samvrte kanthe nadah kriyate | vivrte svasah | Taittriya Pratisakhya - Ch-2 - sutras 3,4 & 5 The parts, which give audible quality, are breast, throat, head, mouth and nostrils. When throat is closed, tone is produced and when it is opened, breath is produced. The vital air coming out from the various sthanas like the throat, head, mouth and nostrils are two-fold namely Vivrta and Samvrta. The Nada thus spurns out. The 13 th pathala of the Rk Pratisakhya discusses the production of speech sounds thus: vayuh pranah kosthyamanupradanam kanthasya khe vivrte samvrte va | apadyate svasatam nadatam va vaktrihayam ubhayam va antara ubhau || Rk Pratisakhya - Ch-13 - sutra 1 The five factors in the production of speech is as follows: The breath expelled from respiration and speech. nadanupradana Vocalisation of the breath sthana karana asyaprayatna The parts of mouth in which the tongue comes in to contact; fully, partially or nearly. The parts of contact with the sound production. Modulations brought about in the cavity of the mouth- its shape, division of two parts namely tongue and lips.

8 Saman is the main name given to the verses of the Sama Veda, due to its musical element. Lord Krsna proclaims in Bhagvad Gita that He is the Sama Veda among Vedas. vedanam samavedo'smi || Bhagvad Gita Chapter X - 22 Music is spoken as an elevating element towards devotion to God. yo jagara trmrcah kamayante yo jagara tamu samani yanti | yo jagara tamayapsoma aha tavahanasmi sakhye nyokah || Sama Veda Part II - Book IX- Ch. II- V-1 (Hymn No.1826) (also in Rg Veda 5.44.14) Agni is watchful, and the Richas love him: Agni is watchful, Sama hymns approach him. Agni is watchful, to him saith this Soma, I rest and have my dwelling in thy friendship. I rest upon him and have my dwelling in his friendship. Sarasvati is pleased by the seven svaras. uta nah priya priyasu saptasvasa sujusta | sarasvati stobhya bhuta || Sama Veda Part II - Book VI - Ch. III - IX-1(Hymn No.1461) (also in Rg Veda 6.61.10) Yea, she most dear amid dear streams-seven-sistered, loved with foundest love. Sarasvati, hath earned our praise. Sapta-Vani literally means seven voices or tones, according to the scholars, the seven generic metres of the Veda. pari kosa madhuksutah somah punano arsati | abhi vanitrarsinam sapta nusata || Sama Veda Part I - Book VI - Ch. II - Decade III-12 (Hymn No.577) On through the long wool of the sheep to the meath-dropping vat he flows; the Rsis seven-fold choir hath sung aloud to him.

9 One of the earliest references to the Indian Musical theory is found in the Rk Pratisakhya (around 4 th century B.C.), which mentions the origin of the seven notes from the three primary notes. They refer to three modes of sound, the sapta svaras, three speeds, sapta Yamans, modulation of the svaras and the various parts that are connected in the production of sound. trini mandram madhyamuttamam ca | sthananyahuh saptayamani ca || Rg Veda Pratisakhya - Siksa Pathalam, XIIIMandra, Madhya and Uttama are the three modes of sound; in their corresponding seven places of seven Yamans. sapta svara ye yamaste | - Rg Veda Pratisakhya - Siksa Pathalam - XIII-44 Those seven Yamans are the seven svaras. This subject shall be dealt with in detail in the subsequent chapter. The Siksas also refer to phonetic productions of sound. The main Siksas such as Paniniya, Naradiya, and Yajnavalkya deal with the concept of sound elaborately. The Naradiya Siksa, ascribed to Sage Narada, gives five gatis or Scruti varieties of sruti namely, Dipta, Ayata, Karuna, Mrdu and Madhya. The Siksa tells that one who does not possess a good knowledge of the five srutis cannot be a teacher of music. diptayata karunanam mrdumadhyamayostatha | srutinam yo'visesajno na sa acarya ucyate || Naradiya Siksa -1-7,9

10 The Naradiya Siksa also gives the explanation for the word 'Sadja' as follows: atra naradadya namanirvacanamakarsuh nasam kanthamurastalu jihvam dantamsca samsritah | sadbhyastajjayate yasmattasmat sadja ityadi | Naradiya Siksa - I - 5,4 Here seers like Narada etc, while explaining the nomenclature, elucidate the word 'Sadja' as that which is born out of six modes such as nose, throat, chest, palatal, tongue and teeth. Origin of Nada is mentioned in Paniniya Siksa. When Atman wants to speak, it stirs up the mental faculty, which in turn stirs the 'anala' (fire) in the body. And the mind stimulated by Agni rises up and passes through the heart, throat, head palate, teeth, nose, lips and jaws, and the Nada is produced. akasa vayu prabhavah sariratat samuccaran vaktramupaiti nadah || sthanantaresu pravibhajyamano varnatvamagacchati yah sa sabdah || Paniniya Siksa sutrapatha 1. The Paniniya Siksa also describes the production of sound springing out from the naval, its mode of production and place of pronunciation. tatra nabhipradesat prayatnapreritah prano nama vayururdhvamakramannura - adinam sthananamanyatamasmin sthane prayatnena vidharyate | sthanamidam karanamidam prayatna esa dvidha'nilah | sthanam pidayati, vrttikarah prakrama eso'tha nabhitalat || Paniniya Siksa sutrapatha 4. This prana (life-force) then, springs out upwards from the navel region through the various modes and parts of speech, which are called sthanas. This effort is two fold such as sthana and karana. Sthana is the place of production and karana is the part of the body that is involved in the sound production.

11 The same idea pointed out in the Pindottpatthiprakarana by Sangita Ratnakara is as follows. atma vivaksamano yat manah prerayate manah dehastham vahnimahanti sa prerayati marutam | brahmagranthisthitah so tha kramad urdhvapathe caran | nabhihrtkanthamurdhasyesvavi vibhavayati dhvanim || Sangita Ratnakara Ch III - 3 and 4 This prana ( life - force) then, stirred by the fires of the body, goes gradually upwards and produces an extremely subtle sound in the navel, a subtle sound in the heart, a strong sound in the throat, a weak sound in the head, and in the mouth a sound with the qualities of art. On its path upward, prana passes through the mystical powers of the cakras. Brahmagranti is explained in Sangita Ratnakara as dwelling in the navel region as a twelve-fold petalled lotus, where the Nada springs out. brahmagranthiriti proktam tasya nama puratanaih | tanmadhye nabhicakram tu dvadasaramavasthitam || Sangita Ratnakara Ch II - 147 The Astadhyayi while explaining the sutra 1.1.9 notifies the production of sounds by the placement, effort and pronunciation. tulyasyaprayatnam sarvanam Astadhyayi 1.1.9 The same thought applies to rendering of sounds, voice modulations, the pitch etc. Natyasastra explains the three types of pitch as follows. tarascaiva hi mandrasya madhyamastrividhah svarah | dhruvavidhane caivasya sampravaksyami laksanam || Natyasastra Ch 14. Verse 108

12 The production of sound from the body and the same from an instrument like the Vina is correlated in the scriptures. The human voice itself is called the Gatra Vina. The Natyasastra speaks of two types of Vinas, namely, Manusika Vina and Daravi Vina. sariryameva vinayam svara sapta prarkititah | Natyasastra Ch.33 Verse 29 a The seven notes (svaras) are produced from the Vina of the (human) body. purvam sariradutpannastato gacchati daravim | svarah puskarajam caivamanuyanti dhvanim yutah || Natyasastra Ch. 33 verse 30 The notes are born at first from the body and then they are transferred to the lute made of wood. Upanisads were the first to denote the initial letters of the Sapta svaras as Sa, Ri, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha and Ni. naimisaranyam punyasthalamavalokya sarigamapadhanisa samjnairvairagyabodhakaraih svaravisesaih prapancikaparankakharharikathalapaih sthavarajangamanamakaih bhagavadbhaktivisesa naramrgakimpurusamarakimnara apsaroganansammohayannagatam brahmatmajam bhagavadbhaktam naradamavalokya dvadasavarsasatrayagopasthitah || Narada Parivrajaka Upanisad I - 1. (Lines 6 to 11) Now once Narada, a jewel among ascetics, taking his ( usual) rounds over all the (three) worlds, sanctifying (all the more ) new sacred places and holy places of pilgrimage by his observation, (himself) attaining purity of mind, ( remaining ) free from enmity, tranquil, selfcontrolled, getting despondent from every quarter (seeing people's misery), closely investigating into his own Self, seeing the holy place, the Naimisa (sacred) forest, noted for its joy of self-imposed religious observances and crowded with saintly personages.

13 Narada alighted there (from his aerial journey), fascinating groups of men, animals, horse-faced demigods, gods, Kinnara demigods and nymphs with his songs on the exploits of Lord Visnu, called Sthavara and Jangama, which specially induce devotion to the Lord, set in musical notes sa, ri, ga, ma, pa, dha and ni, which arouse dispassion (to worldly attachments) and which are averse to the ways of the world. Brhadaranyaka Upanisad refers to instruments like Sankha, Vina, Dundubhi, and so on. sa yatha dundubherhanyamanasya na bahyanchandan 鈥�nghaknuyadgrahanaya, dundubhe sa tu grahanena dundubhyadhatasya va sabdo grhitah | Brhadaranyaka Upanisad IV -5-8 As, when a drum is beaten, one cannot distinguish its various particular notes, but they are included in the general note of the drum or in the general sound produced by different kinds of strokes. sa yatha vinayai vadyamanayai na bahyanchandannghaknuyadgrahanaya, vinayai tu sa tu grahanena vinavadasya va sabdo grhitah | Brhadaranyaka Upanisad IV -5-9 As, when a Vina is played, one cannot distinguish its various particular notes, but they are included in the general note of the Vina or in the general sound produced by different kinds of playing. sa yatha sankhasya dhyayamanasya na bahyannghandanchaknuyadgahanaya, sankhasya tu grahanena sankhadyamasya va sabdo grhitah | Brhadaranyaka Upanisad IV -5-10 As, when a conch is blown, one cannot distinguish its various particular notes, but they are included in the general note of the conch or in the general sound produced by different kinds of playing.

14 The Sama Veda has special links to Pranavam and Nadopasana. The Sama Veda Mantras are sung by Udgatri Priests at Vedic rituals. Their singing is known as Udgita. Chandogya Upanisad, a major Upanisad belonging to the Sama Veda, also refers to the Pranavam as the imperishable Udgita. The following Chandogya Upanisad passage points out the importance of Pranavam (Udgita) for the Upasana of Brahman through Nada: omityetadaksaramuddhitamupasita | omiti hyudgayati tasyopavyakhyanam || Chandogya Upanisad I-1-1 Let a man meditate on the syllable 'Om', called the Udgita; for the udgita (a portion of the Sama-Veda) is sung, beginning with Om. esam bhutanam prthivi rasah prthivya apo rasah | apamosadhayo rasa osadhinam puruso rasah purusasya vagraso vaca rgrasa rcah sama rasah samna udgitho rasah | Chandogya Upanisad I-1-2 Of all the objects of creation, the Earth is the essence; Of Earth, the essence is water; Of Water, the essence is Herbs; Man is the essence of the Herbs; Poetry is the essence of Speech; Music is the essence of Pranava Poetry; The Udgita of Sama Veda embodied by the pranava is the essence of Music; Thus, this Omkara (pranava nada) is the utmost, the most valuable, the final essence of all essences. It must be worshipped." This Upanisadic passage asserts that the Nada and Music are intimately connected to the Udgita of samans, which is the same as that of Pranavam. In this context, the Upasana practiced by the Nada Yogis is considered equivalent to the meditation on pranava done by the other type of Yogis to attain God Realization.

15 Dhyanabindu Upanisad describes the pranava as the source of everything. omkaraprabhava deva omkaraprabhava svarah | omkaraprabhavam sarvam trailokyam sacaracaram || Dhyanabindu Upanisad - 16 Omkara is the source of all devas, Omkara is the source of all svaras, Omkara is the source of each and everything in this universe. Speaking about the tonal quality, Chandogya Upanisad says: vinardi samno vrne pasavyamityagnerungitho'niruktah prajapaterniruktah somasya mrdu slaksanam vayoh | slaksanam balavapindrasya krauncam vrhaspaterapadhvantam varunasya tansavanivopaseveta varunam tveva varjayet || Chandogya Upanisad II - 22-1 These are modulations in the different tones employed in singing the Saman hymns, and their names, such as vinardi, anirukta, nirukta, mrdu, slaksana, balavad, kraunica and apadhvanta are mentioned here. The Kathopanisad also refers to musical instruments in the dialogue between Yama and Naciketas. ye ye kama durlabha martyaloke sarvan kamamschandatah prarthayasva ima ramah sarathah saturya na idrsa lambhaniya manusyaih | abhimatpramattabhi paricarayasva naciketo maranam manupraksih | Kathopanisad Ch I Verse 25 Yama says to Naciketas, "Whatever desires are difficult to attain in this world of man, ask freely for all of them. Here are these fair maidens with their chariots, and musical instruments. Such are not to be obtained by men. Be served by these whom I give to you. But, O Naciketas, do not question me about death."

16 Hamsopanisad says that Nada can be attained only by crores of penance. sa eva japakotaya nadamanubhavati evam sarvam hamsavasannado dasavidho jayate | ciniti prathamah | cinciniti dvitiyah | ghantanadastrtiyah | hamsanadascaturthah | pancamastantrinadah | sasthastalanadah | saptamo venunadah | astama mrdanganadah | navamo bherinadah | dasamo meghanadah | Hamsopanisad - Cakratanam - Verse 1 Nada has to be experienced only through crores of penance and that Nada known through Hamsa, is ten fold. The sounds - cin as first, cincin as second, ghanta as third, hamsa nada as the fourth, tantri as fifth, tala as sixth, venu as seventh, mrdanga as eighth, bheri as ninth and megha as the tenth. The Puranas deal with devotional and bhakti music. In some of the Puranas, details pertaining to music are found in separate sections. For instance, the whole of Chapter 21 is devoted to music in the Markandeya Purana. Verses 23 and 24 therein depict the number of svaras, grama ragas, gitas and murcchanas as seven and the number of Talas as forty-nine. saptasvara gramaragah sapta pannagasaptama gitakani ca saptaiva tavatyascapi murcchanah | Markandeya Purana XXI Verse 23 talascaikonapancasattatha gramatrayancayat | Markandeya Purana XXI Verse 24

17 The Visnudharmottara Purana describes how the nine rasas (sentiments) such as hasya, srngara, vira, raudra, adbhuta, karuna, bibhatsa, bhayanaka and santa - fit with in the seven svaras of music. navarasah tatra hasyasrrngarayoh madhyamapancamau | viraraudradbhutesu sadjapancamau | karune nisadagandharau | bibhatsabhayanakhayo dhaivatam | sante madhyamam || Visnudharmottara Purana Section III - Ch. XV The nine rasas and their respective emotive svaras are as follows. Madhyama and Pancama for Hasya and Srngara, Sadja and Pancama for the depiction of Vira, Raudra and Adbhuta rasas, Nisada and Gandhara for exhibiting Karuna, Dhaivata for Bibhatsa and Bhayanaka and madhyama for Santa rasa. According to the Linga Purana, the worship of Visnu is to be performed along with offerings, songs, dance and musical instruments. arcanam gananrtyadyam vadyotsavasamanvitam | kartavyam visnubhaktairhi purusairanisam nrpa || Linga Purana II. 2.5 The direct vision of the svara devatas and experiencing the Brahmananda - the blissful state of mind is referred in the Adbhuta Ramayana. krsnadattena ganena tasyayatah svaranganah | brahmanandah samabhavannaradasya ca cetasi || A blissful joy arose in the mind of Narada on listening to the music of Krsna and by the vision of the Svara devatas.

18 The Sculptures in the temples are visual testimonies to the art forms in India. Musicals Instruments are represented in Ajanta Ellora Caves, Gandhara, Nolamba Sculptures, Hoysala Carvings, Paintings, icons, reliefs, miniatures and illustrated manuscripts. It is interesting to note that in Indian tradition, Gods, Goddesses and Puranic Characters are associated with musical instrument. Some of the Gods are supposed to be presiding deities of select musical beats (Tala) such as Siva for Mangini, Brahma for Nandin, Agni for Brngini, Sapta Mata for Candavadya, Vinayaka for Dakkari and Udghata for Muruga. The Bhagavad Gita associates some of the characters with the instruments such as Krsna with Pancajanya, Yudhistira with Anantavijaya, Bhima with Paundra, Arjuna with Devadatta, Nakula with Sughosa and Sahadeva with Manipuspaka. pancajanyam hrsikeso devadattam dhananjayah | paundram dadharma mahasankham bhimakarma vrkodarah || anantavijayam raja kuntiputro yudhisthirah | nakulah sahadevasya sughosamanipuspakau || Bhagavad Gita Ch. I verse 15,16 Gods and Goddesses are also adorned with various instruments such as, Sarasvati with Vina, Krsna with Flute, Siva with Udukkai (Dhakka), Nandin with Mrdanga, Visnu with Sankha, Narada with Mahati and Tumburu with Tambura.

19 Instruments play an integral part in our day-to-day life, right from birth. Musical Instruments are played during marriage, rituals, sacrifices, during offerings and of course for entertaining an audience. We have instruments meant for concerts, temple festivals, martial music, folk music, royal retinue and funeral procession. The instruments are associated with moments of joy or sorrow befitting the occasion. Nadasvaram and Tavil are called Mangala Vadyams played on auspicious occasions and rituals, while a separate set of instruments which are called Savu Melam' are played only during funeral rites. Musical instruments of primitive type can be seen even now in the hands of wandering mendicants, jugglers, ballet-singers, gypsies and the like. The Musical instruments were also used for conveying messages in olden days. Primitive tribes sent messages by beating out codes on drums or tom-toms. Each pattern of drumbeat had a particular meaning. On a hilltop, a man would pass on the beat to man far away on another hilltop. A long chain of drummers might repeat the same drumbeat, until the message travelled hundreds of miles. In Indian Tradition musical instruments are considered as symbolic representation of Gods and are worshipped. The worship of one own's trade equipments during 'Ayudha Puja' are in practice even today. Musicians offer their respectful offerings to their instruments with great reverence. Even Bharata in his Natyasastra gives a long and elaborate ritual for the worship of drums in the Purvaranga section. purvarangavidhavasmimstvaya samyak prayujyatam | Natyasastra Ch IV verse 14 At this juncture, you have to use the rules of stage worship effectively.

asyangani tu karyani yathavadanupurvasah | tantribhandasamayogaih pathyayogakrtaistatha || Natyasastra Ch IV verse 15 b avanzi yakisti razi ye: venen: 11 20 Natyasastra Ch V verse 8 The preliminaries (angas) have to be completed as said before. The instruments are to be kept in an orderly fashion befitting the occasion. By all these means the Purvaranga ceremony has to be conducted towards preparation in stage worship. Instruments are always considered as objects of worship and they are associated with Gods. The sacred association of Damaru or Dhakka with Lord Siva is well known. His Nataraja form represents Srsthi, Stithi, Samhara, Tirobhava and Anugraha - as Pancakriya. The iconographic form of the sounding drum symbolizes Creation. And it is the image of Rhythmic activity as the source of all action and movement in the cosmos, which is represented by the Prabhamandala. Prabhamandala is the aura of radiance depicting His omnipresence. The sound of the Drum denotes primeval Nada, origin of creation. Nada Brahma is the word often used in our philosophical treatises. That Nada stands for all sound and revelation. The Vedas were only revelations, (srutis) (heard, revealed). Even the Great Astadhyayi is based on the 14 Mahesvara sutras, the 14 sounds emanating from the Dakka of Paramesvara. Thus we may see that music and musical instruments are part and parcel of human life and a study of them is a desideratum. However, the present study is restricted to Musical instruments, the origin and evolution of which is taken up in the next chapter.