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This work [brihannaradiya-purana], which was printed on more occasions than one, hardly claim to have had a very early origin. Yet it attained considerIII In Purusottama-mahatmya, chap. 31, there is a verse (No. 86-jayasva rama krsneti jaya bhadreti yo vadet/, jaya krsna jagannatha nathety uccarayan muda, suana-kale sa vai muktim prayati dvija-sattamah//) which resembles much the verse of the Purusottama-p, mentioned above. But in this verse of the Purusottama-mahatmya it is Jaimini, and not Krsna, who is the speaker. II 2 So far as I know, this work was published twice by the Vangavasi Press, Calcutta (the second edition having appeared in 1316 Bengali Samvat) and once by the Asiatic Society, Calcutta, in 1891 A.D. Both these editions consist of 38 chapters and have generally the same text, although there are occasional variations in readings and numbers of verses in the corresponding chapters. The Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. is printed in Bengali characters. Yet, to avoid confusion in references, I have used it in the present work, because in my Puranic Records also I used it (in discussing its date and relation with the present Naradiya-purana) in preference to the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed., in which the verses have not in all cases been properly numbered. For instance, verses 80-85 of chap. 13 have been numbered in this edition simply as '80/81' without any demarcation, and verses 26-47 chap. 24 have been wrongly numbered as 16-37. However, in using the Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed. I have always taken particular care to compare its readings with those of the of

310 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS able popularity as an interesting handbook of religious and ethical value, and this is evident from the discovery of its Manuscripts¹¹³ (written in different characters) from different parts of India. Being meant exclusively for the Vaisnavas it begins with a salutation, in two verses, to Upendra (Krsna) of Vrndavana, who is said to be the original deity (adi-deva) consisting of pure consciousness and Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed, and to see that no deduction is made from any verse, the text of which is not supported by both these editions. 113 For these Manuscripts see especially (1) Theodor Aufrecht, pp. 9-11, Nos. 47-49 (all complete in 38 chapters ), of which No. 48 is written in Devanagari and No. 49 in Bengali scripts. (2) A. Weber, pp. 129-130, No. 452 (consisting of 39 chapters ). (3) R. L. Mitra, p. 225, No. 479 (written in Nagara). (4) Haraprasad Shastri, p. 24 (No. 845 , which ends in chap. 30 and is written in Maithila script), p. 25 (No. 910, which is written in Maithila script and dated La.-Sam. 429), and p. 29 (No. 1001 â–�, which also is written in Maithila script and is dated La.-Sam. 425). (5) A Catalogue of Sanskrit Manuscripts Acquired for and Deposited in the Government Sanskrit College Library, Sarasvati Bhavana, Benares, 1918-30 (Prepared under the Supervision of Mahamahopadhyaya Gopinath Kaviraj), Vol. I, p. 16 (written in Bengali script). (6) Dacca University Manuscripts Nos. 548 (incomplete), 605 B (incomplete), 625 (complete), 937 (complete; dated Saka 1648), 1013 (complete; dated Saka 1646); 1317 (incomplete), 1667 (complete; dated Saka 1578), 1704 (complete; dated Saka 1689), 2670 (complete; dated Saka 1614), 2712 (complete; dated Saka 1618), 3836 (complete), 4091 (complete; dated Saka 1725), 4234 (ending in chap. 37; dated Saka 1609), 4329 (complete). All these Manuscripts are written in Bengali script, and in the complete ones the work consists of 38 chapters. (7) Julius Eggeling, VI, pp. 1208-9, Nos. 3368-73 (all complete in 38 chapters and written in Devanagari). Of these, Nos. 3368, 3369 and 3370 are dated 1535, 1747 and 1769 A. D. respectively. (8) A. B. Keith, Catalogue, II, pp. 914-5, Nos. 6612-13 (both being complete in 38 chapters). Of these two Manuscripts, the former was copied in Bengali script in 1775 A.D. and the latter in Grantha characters in 1866-67 A.D. (9) M. Rangacharya, IV. i, pp. 1453-54, No. 2139 (breaking off in the 38 th chapter; written in Telugu), and p. 1454, No. 2140 (complete in 38 chapters; written in Grantha characters).

THE MINOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 311 also appearing in parts as Brahma, Visnu, Mahesa and others for the sake of creation. It then introduces its topics by narrating the story of Saunaka as follows: Saunaka and many other sages practised austerities and worshipped Visnu with great devotion in the Naimisa forest, some of them trying to please the god by austere practices, some by following the path of knowledge (jnana), and some by cultivating the highest type of Bhakti. Once these and innumerable other sages met in a conference to find out the best means of attaining the four ends of life, viz., Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksa. Finding that the sages were about to put to him questions as to what the sacred places and the Tirthas were, how people could attain final liberation and unswerving devotion to Hari, and in what way the three kinds of actions bore fruit, Saunaka referred them to Suta, the best Pauranika, who was engaged in worshipping Janardana by various sacrifices at Siddhasrama. Saunaka said that Suta, son of Lomaharsana, was a pupil of Vyasa and, being instructed by the latter in all the Sastras, used to speak out in the Puranas the essence of the Vedas, Vedangas and other works and that with the decrease of Dharma in the different Yugas Madhusudana appeared as Vyasa and divided the Veda. Being thus informed of Suta's learning and wisdom, the sages thanked Saunaka and went to Siddhasrama where Suta had undertaken to perform the Agnistoma sacrifice for the pleasure of Narayana. After Suta had taken his holy bath at the conclusion of the sacrifice, the sages requested him to speak to them on the source and nature of creation, preservation and destruction of the universe, the method of pleasing Visnu by worship, the practice of Varnasrama-dharma, the right way of receiving guests, the means of attaining final liberation, and the nature of Bhakti and its attainments. Consequently, Suta proposed to speak out 'the extensive (brhat) Purana named Naradiya' (or, 'the Brhannarada Purana') 114 in which Narada spoke to Sanatkumara and which contained topics on Narayana and was imbued with the Vedic ideas. He praised this work 114 Brihannaradiya-purana 1. 36 (puranam naradiyakhyam brhad vedartha-sammitam), and 1. 66 (... brhannarada-namadheyam param puranam ....). In the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed, the latter verse reads 'idam narada-namadheyam' (for 'brhannarada-namadheyam').

312 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS in high terms as yielding all the ends of life and decried and condemned to hell those who found in the Puranas nothing but 'arthavada'.115 (- Chapter 1). Being asked as to how and where Narada met Sanatkumara and what the former spoke to the latter, Suta said that once Sanatkumara and the other sons of Brahma went to the peak of the mountain Meru and prepared to take their holy bath in the Ganges known by the name of Sita, when Narada arrived there singing the names of Hari and eulogising the sacred river. Sanatkumara praised Narada as the best devotee of Hari and requested him to speak on a number of religious topics including the origin of the universe. In compliance with this request Narada began by eulogising Hati with the mention of his ten incarnations including Rama (the carrier of the ploughshare), Isana, and another not expressly named but appearing from his description to be none but Kalki. (- Chapter 2). Thus the contents of the Brihannaradiya-purana have been introduced in chapters 1-2. The remaining chapters deal with the following topics: The process of origin of the universe from Mahavisnu (also called Narayana) who assumes the forms of Prajapati, Visnu and Rudra by taking to the three Gunas (Rajas, Sattva and Tamas respectively), and also appears as Prakrti, Purusa and Kala for the sake of creation. Description of Visnu's Para Sakti, which is differentiated into Vidya and Avidya and is said to permeate the whole world and to effect its creation, preservation and destruction. People's naming of this Sakti variously as Uma, Laksmi, Bharati, Girija, Ambika, Durga, Bhadrakali, Candi, Vaisnavi, Brahmi, Mahesvari, Kaumari etc. and as Maya (or 115 Ibid., 1. 56-59- nindayam kalahe vapi hy asantah papa-tatparah// puranesv arthavadatvam ye vadanti naradhamah/ tair arjitani punyani tadvad eva bhavanti vai// samasta-karma-nirmula-sadhanani naradhamah/ puranany arthavadena srutva narakam asnute// yavad brahma srjaty etaj jagat sthavara-jangamam/ tavat sa pacyate papi narakagnisu samtatam// Also 1.61 puranesu dvija-sresthah sarva-dharma-pravaktrsu/ pravadanty arthavadatvam ye te naraka-bhajanah //,

THE MINOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 313 Mahamaya) for creating infatuation and as Prakrti for effecting the origin of the universe. Names of the seven upper worlds (Bhuh, Bhuvah etc.) and the seven lower worlds (Atala, Vitala etc.). Geography of the earth;position of the mountains Meru and Lokaloka which bound the seven oceans and of which the former is situated at the middle of the earth and forms the resort of all the gods and the latter lies at the farthest end of land; 11 division of the earth into seven continents (dvipas, viz., Jambu, Plaksa etc.); names of the oceans surrounding these continents; relative position and extents of the continents and the oceans; position of Bharatavarsa, which is said to be lying on the north of the saltocean and on the south of the Himadri. Praise of Bharatavarsa as the best place for pious work and for Visnu-worship. (- Chapter 3). Praise of faith (sraddha) and devotion (bhakti), which form the basis of Dharma and ensure success in all enterprises. Eloquent praise of faithful observance of asramacara (customs enjoined by one's order of life), without which neither the Veda nor devotion to Hari or Mahesvara is of any avail to one. Benefits of association with good men, especially with the sincere devotees of the Bhagavat. (- Chapter 4). Characteristics of the best Bhagavatas, who include those devoutly worshipping Siva, bearing the sectarian mark Tripundra, and putting on Rudraksas. (- Chapter 5). Glorification of the river Ganga, especially at Prayaga, where this sacred river meets the Yamuna, and at Varanasi. Praise of reading and hearing the Puranas with devotion. Mention of persons (including teachers and expounders of the Vedas and the Puranas) who are to be regarded as Gurus; classification and praise of Gurus. (-Chaps. 6 and 9). Praise of bhumi-dana (11.120 ff.). Qualifications of persons to whom gifts should be made. (- Chapter 12). Praise of various pious acts which please Visnu and Siva; providing Brahmins with means of livelihood; digging tanks, wells etc.; construcIbid., 3.44- 40 bhutale madhyame meruh sarva-deva-samasrayah/ lokalokas ca bhumy-ante tan-madhye sapta sagarah//

314 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS pretion and preservation of temples meant for Visnu or Siva; dedication of orchards, and of flower-gardens meant for the public or for deities¹17; plantation of Tulasi plants and making arrangements for their servation; bathing of Visnu or Siva with various articles and on different occasions; worship of these deities with various kinds of flowers and with the offer of different articles (including food materials); gift of cows, food, wealth, virgin girls (in marriage), books etc. to Brahmins; medical treatment of diseased persons, especially of Brahmins; rendering of various kinds of service to Visnu or Siva, their temples, and to Brahmins; and so on. (- Chapter 13). Names of hells, and description of terrible punishments undergone by the sinners there. Persons to be considered guilty of mahapatakas, viz., Brahma-hatya, sura-pana, svarna-steya, etc. Enumeration of sins leading to different hells and deserving different kinds of punishment. (- Chapter 14). Observance of devotional Vratas on Sukla-dvadasi and Paurnamasi Tithis for a year by worshipping Visnu under particular names in the different months from Margasirsa (Agrahayana) and bringing these Vratas to a conclusion after a year by worshipping Visnu in Sarvatobhadra Mandalas on the full-moon days of the months of Margasirsa and Karttika respectively. Performance of homa, keeping awake at night, and dance and music (both vocal and instrumental) form some of the most essential parts of these Vratas. (-Chaps. 16-17). Description of other vows, viz., Dhvajaropana-vrata (requiring the hoisting of a flag and the worship of the Sun, Garuda and the Moon as well), Hari-pancaka-vrata (which is to be observed for five days from the Suklaikadasi Tithi of every month from Margasirsa), Masopavasavrata (i.e. the vow of observing fast for a month), and Ekadasi-vrata (-Chaps. 18-21). Elaborate treatment of Varnasrama-dharma (including sraddha, prayascitta, and tithi-nirnaya for the efficacy of the Srauta and the 117 Ibid., 13.55 sarva-lokopabhogartham pusparamam janesvara/. kurvate devatartham va tesam punya-phalam smnuf/

THE MINOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 315 Smarta rites), said to have been made in accordance with the prescriptions of Manu and others. (-Chaps. 22-28). Description of the path of Yama (yama-marga), which is said to be very pleasant for the virtuous but extremely dangerous and painful for the sinners. Nature of these pleasures and sufferings; and the poius acts (such as gift of various things including betel leaves, service to parents and others, reading of Puranas, and so on) which cause the pleasures. (- Chapter 29). Account (in prose) of the course of rebirth of creatures, first as stationary objects of nature (such as trees, creepers, mountains, etc.) and then as worms, insects, beasts and human beings in succession. Gradual rise in caste, profession, and physical and financial condition of human beings in their successive births. Description of the course of development of the foetus in the mother's womb. Painful experiences of a human being in the different stages of his life. (- Chapter 30). yoga, Ways of attaining final liberation.-Distinction of yoga into Kriya-yoga and Jnana-yoga; detailed treatment of with the names of thirty kinds of asanas (modes of sitting for the practice of yoga); characteristics of persons to be regarded as sincerely desirous of final liberation. ( Chapter 31). Praise of rendering devotional service to Visnu and his temples untiringly by body and mind or even unintentionally on rare occasions. (-Chaps. 32-37). Names and extents of the four Yugas. Conduct of people in the different Yugas, especially in Kali. Praise of reading or hearing the Brhannaradiya-purana (- Chapter 38). Besides the above contents the Brhannaradiya-purana has a number of stories, which include the following. Mrkandu's practice of severe austerities at Salagrama, and Markandeya's birth as his son and practice of the Bhagavata-dharma at Salagrama according to Visnu's instructions. (-Chaps. 4-5). Birth of Sagara in Aurva's hermitage, after the Haihayas and the Talajanghas had dethroned his proud and jealous father Bahu, son of Vrka, and administered poison to his mother with the intention of killing him in her womb and Aurva had consoled Sagara's mother and

316 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS prevented her from burning herself to death 118 after Bahu's demise in the forest; Sagara's education, military or otherwise, from Aurva, and his crushing defeat of the Sakas, Yavanas and others, whom Vasistha saved from annihilation by Sagara by turning them extra-Vedic and compelling the Parsnikas (Parasikas?) to shave off their heads, the Yavanas to have long hair, and the others to have shaven heads and long beards; 11 Sagara's marriage with Kesini and Sumati, daughters of a king of the Kausika family of Vidarbha; birth of Asamanjasa to Kesini and of sixty thousand sons to Sumati as a result of Aurva's boon; reproachable conduct of Asamanjasa and the other sons of Sagara, and the tyrannised gods' approach to Kapila for redress; birth of Amsumat to Asamanjasa; Sagara's performance of a Horse Sacrifice, and Kapila's reducing all the sons of Sagara to ashes for their misbehaviour to him for the sacrificial horse, which was kept in his hermitage by Indra; Amsumat's bringing the horse from Kapila's hermitage; birth of Dilipa from Amsumat, of Bhagiratha from Dilipa, and of Sudasa in the family of Bhagiratha, Sudasa's son being Saudasa Mitrasaha. Dharmaraja's instructions to Bhagiratha to rescue his burnt ancestors from hells by means of the waters of the Ganga; Bhagiratha's consequent worship of Visnu in the Himalayas, and his bringing down the Ganga by propitiating Siva in accordance with the instructions 118 Among the verses said by Aurva to prevent Sagara's mother from self-immolation occurs the following one : balapatyas ca garbhinyo hy adrsta-rtavas tatha/ rajasvala raja-sute narohanti citam subhe// (7.65). This verse has been quoted in Srinathacarya-cudamani's Krtya-tattvarnava (fol. 93 b), Govindananda's Suddhi-kaumudi (p. 83), and Raghunandana's Smrtitattva (II, p. 236). In his commentary (II. i, p. 59) on the Parasara smrti Madhavacarya also quotes this verse but ascribes it to the 'Naradiya-purana' (This verse is the same as Nar, I, 119 Brihannaradiya-purana 8 39- 7.52). cakara parsnikan mundan yavanan lamba-murdhajan/ anyams ca smasrulan mundan anyan veda-bahiskrtan// In the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed. the word 'yavanan' has been spelt as 'javanan'.

THE MINOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 317 received from Bhrgu living on the bank of the Godavari. (-Chaps. 7-8 and 13-15). Saudasa Mitrasaha's turning a Raksasa for twelve years as a result of Vasistha's curse brought on him by a Raksasa who caused Saudasa to offer human flesh to Vasistha by appearing first in the form of Vasistha and then in that of Saudasa's cook and thus took revenge for Saudasa's killing, during a hunting expedition in a forest on the bank of the Reva (Narmada), his female mate sporting with him in the form of a tigress. Saudasa's having the name Kalmasapada for throwing on his own feet the waters with which he was going to curse Vasistha for the mischief done by him. Saudasa's eating up of a Brahmin sage on the bank of the Narmada, and the latter's wife's curse to Saudasa to continue to be a Raksasa for long and to meet death, during sexual enjoyment. Saudasa's curse to the Brahmin woman to be a Pisaci. Saudasa and the Brahmin woman's meeting with a Brahma-raksasa, who was formerly a Brahmin, named Somadatta, of Magadha; Saudasa and others' regaining higher states of existence by coming in contact with the waters of the Ganga. (- Chapter9). 120 Aditi's austerities after the gods' defeat in a war¹30 with Bali, and Visnu's birth to her as Vamana and redemption of the kingdom of heaven for the gods. Origin of the Ganga from the waters with which Vamana's feet were washed by Bali. (-Chaps. 10-11). Unconscious performance of the Dhvajaropana-vrata by a reckless Sudra named Matali and a Nisada woman named Kokilini, who, after death, passed to the region of Visnu and were then reborn respectively as king Sumati of the Lunar race and his queen Satyamati. (- Chapter 18). King Dharmakirti's degradation by coming under the influence of the Pasandas, but his rebirth to sage Galava as his extremely pious son by unconsciously performing the Ekadasi-vrata. (- Chapter 21). 120 In describing this war the Brhannaradiya-purana names a large variety of missiles, which are as follows: Drughana, Bhindipala, Khadga, Parasu, Tomara, Parigha, Churika, Danda, Cakra, Sanku, Musala, Ankusa, Langala, Pattisa, Sakti, Upala, Sataghni, Prasa, Ayodanda, Musti, Sula, Kuthara, Pasa, Ksudrayasti (or, Ksudra and Yasti?), Brhacchara, Ayomukha, Tunda, Cakra-danda, Ksudra-partisa, Naraca.-Brihannaradiya-purana 10, 23-27.

318 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS Devamali's repentance after earning a large fortune by unlawful means, his spending half of his wealth in benevolent work, and his attainment of final liberation at Varanasi by worshipping Visnu according to the instructions of a sage named Jananti. (- Chapter 33). Sumali's constant help to his reckless and licentious brother Yajnamali, and his rescuing the latter from hellish tortures by offering (- Chapter 34). to him a part of his religious merit. The above contents of the Brhannaradiya-purana show that it is a Vaisnava work dealing exclusively with the praise and worship of Visnu, who is very often named as Narayana and sometimes also as Vasudeva, Hari, Janardana etc., but very rarely as Krsna. 121 According to this work the highest deity in his supreme state is Mahavisnu (very often called Narayana), who is described as 'avyaya', 'ananta', 'sarvavyapin', 'nirdvandva', 'nirmama', 'mayatita', 'sadanandaika-vigraha', 'jnana-svarupa', 'jagac-caitanya-karana' and so on, 122 and said to be existing as one and many." 123 It is he who assumes the forms of Brahma, Visnu and Rudra by taking to the three Gunas and creates the universe by means of his Para Sakti (Supreme Active Power), which is differentiated into Vidya and Avidya, the former being the intellect (buddhi) that knows no distinction between the cognisor and the cognisable and makes one perceive the unity of all objects 14 and the latter making the universe appear as different from the god and causing miseries and rebirths. 125 The Sakti of Visnu-Narayana, which is also called Maya or Mahamaya for creating infatuation of beings and Prakrti for effecting the origin of the universe 126 and is popularly I 2 I 122 For this name (Krsna) see Brihannaradiya-purana 2. 9, 11; 3.59; 15.71; 21, 73; 32.41. Brihannaradiya-purana 3. 1, 25. 61-63, 29. 72-76, and so on. 123 Ibid., 3. 27-bhinnabhinna-svarupena sthito vai paramesvarah. 124 lbid., 3. 8-jnatr-jneyaly-upaadhis tu yada nasyati sattamah/ sarvaika-bhavana buddhih sa vidyety abhidhiyate//. 125 Ibid., 3. 7-yada visvam mahavisnor bhinnatvena pratiyate/ tada hy avidya samsiddha tada duhkhasya sadhani// Also ibid., 3.9 a-evam maya mahavisnor bhinna samsara-dayini. 126 Ibid., 3. 28-yasya saktir mahamaya jagad-visrambha-karini/ visvotpatti-r.idanatvat prakrtih procyate budhaih// See also ibid. 3. 9 a (quoted above) and 3. 15 (quoted below).

THE MINOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 319 known by various names such as Uma, Laksmi, Bharati, Durga etc., is all-pervading like the god himself; 127 and it is only by means of Yoga that one can perceive the identity of the god with his Maya or Avidya Sakti and thus get away from the latter, which is not unreal nor real nor both, resorts to the Indescribable (Being), and creates the sense of diversity of Paramatman. 128 The Brhannaradiya-purana recommends the painting of the sectarian mark Urdhvapaundra on all occasions (except Sraddha according to some) 129 but severely denounces as extremely sinful and unfit for Srauta and Smarta rites those persons who mark their limbs with the figures of the Sankha (conch-shell), Cakra (disc) etc. or of the Linga (Phallus) created by the application of heat. 130 It prescribes the use and muttering of the great eight-syllabled Mantra 'om namo naraya- naya'11 said to be eternally expressive of the god, 182 praises Bhakti with its ten gradations, 183 speaks very highly of serving the god like a 127 Ibid., 3. 12-15 yatha harir jagad-vyapi tasya saktis tatha mune/ daha-saktir yathangare svasrayam vyapya tisthati// umeti kecid ahus tam saktim laksmiti capare/ brahmiti vidyavidyeti mayeti ca tathapare/ prakrtis ca para ceti vadanti paramarsayah// 128 Ibid., 31.69-71 mayino mayaya bhedam pasyanti paramatmani/ tasman mayam tyajed yogan mumuksur vipra-sattamah// nasad-rupa na sad-rupa maya vai nobhayatmika/ anirvacyasrita jneya bheda-buddhi-pradayini// mayaivajnana-sabdena sabdyate muni-sattamah/ tasmad ajnana-vicchedo bhaved vigata-mayinam// 129 Ibid., 24. 44-45, which include the following line-urdhvapaundram ca tulasim sraddhe necchanti kecana. 130 Ibid., 14. 136-142. 131 Ibid., 15. 18, 21, 37-38; 17. 8; 38. 99. 132 Ibid., 15. 43 vacyo narayanah prokto mantras tad-vacakah smrtah/ vacya-vacaka-sambandho nitya eva mahatmanah//, 133 Viz., Tamasadhama, Tamasa-madhyama, Tamasottama, Rajasadhama, Rajasa-madhyama, Rajasottama, Sattvikadhama, Sattvika-madhyama, Sattvikottama, and Uttamottama (Brihannaradiya-purana 14. 195-207).

320 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS servant, 134 and lays special stress on avyabhicarini bhakti (unswerving devotion), which arises from pious acts and forms the basis of jnana yielding final liberation, 185 In its opinion, a Candala who is sincerely devoted to Visnu is superior to a Brahmin, and a Brahmin having no devotion for Visnu is worse than a Candala.136 It contains a good number of hymns mostly in praise of Visnu-Narayana¹37 and speaks of innumerable incarnations of the god, of which only the following ten have been named: Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Nrsimha, Vamana, Jamadagnya, Rama Dasarathi, Rama (Musali, also called Nandasutagraja), Isana and Kalki.138 In its discourse on the way of attaining final liberation (moksa) in chap. 31 the Brhannaradiya-purana deals elaborately with Yoga consisting of Kriya-yoga and Jnana-yoga, of which the former requires the worship of all-pervading Visnu in images, twice-born people, the earth, fire, sun, pictures etc. and forms the basis of the latter. 13º As a matter of fact, worship of Visnu in images forms the preliminary step to the realisation of the god and is meant for 'ignorant people, who always worship the Lord of the Universe in images of stone etc.'140 It takes jnana to be the same as buddhi purified by the total destruction of 134 Brihannaradiya-purana 14. 204. I. 135 Ibid., 1. 13; and 31. 27- jnana-labhyam param moksam prahus tattvartha-cintakah/ tajjnanam bhakti-mulam ca bhaktih sat-karmaja tatha// 136 Ibid., 32. 39, and 35. 12. 137 Ibid.. 2. 20-53; 4. 55-63; 4. 84-89; 5. 24-32; 11. 19-39, 71-79; 15. 57-64; 36. 3-38. 138 Ibid., 2. 31-41. See also ibid., 11. 77-78 for some of the names. 139 Ibid., 31. 31-33 yogas tu dvividhah proktah karma-jnana-prabhedatah//, kriya-yogam vina nrrnam jnana-yogo na sidhyati/ kriya-yoga-ratas tasmac chraddhaya harim arcayet// pratima-dvija-bhumy-agni-surya-citradisudvijah / arcayeddharim etesu visnuh sarva-gato yatah// 140 Ibid., 2. 48-ajna yajanti visvesam pasanadisu sarvada},

THE MINOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 321 sins by supreme faith (para sraddha) 141 and extols Yoga saying that it is only the Yogins who acquire jnana yielding moksa.142 On the authority of the Atharva-veda it distinguishes Atman (or Brahma) into Para and Apara, of which Para Atman is beyond the Gunas and Apara Atman has Ahamkara; and Yoga is said to be the perfect realisation of the unity of Para and Apara Atman. 143 As to the correct practice of Yoga it says: sanaih sanair vijetavyah prana matta-gajendravat/ anyatha khalu jayante maharoga-bhayamkarah// (31. 128). "Like intoxicated lordly elephants the vital airs should be controlled by and by, otherwise they become dreadful by (creating) dangerous diseases." Going to speak on devotional service to Visnu the Brhannaradiya-purana extols the sanctity and efficacy of the waters and mud of the Ganges¹44 and urges people to maintain the Tulasi plant in their houses, to salute and worship it with great devotion, 145 and to wear its wood and leaves on their ears.146 A very small particle of Ganges-water in which a Tulasi-leaf has been placed, is said to purify twenty-one generations (9. 133, 138); gift of land with Tulasi plants in it is highly praised (11. 127); and even Visnu is said to wear a 'Tulasimala' (31. 138). 141 Ibid., 31. 29-30- sraddhaya paraya caiva sarva-papam pranasyati//. sarva-papesu nastesu buddhir bhavati nirmala/ saiva buddhih samakhyata jnana-sabdena suribhih//. 142 Ibid., 31. 31-jnanam ca moksadam prahus tajjnanam yoginam bhavet. 143 Ibid., 31. 57-58- atmanam dvividham prahuh parapara-vibhedatah/ dve brahmani veditavye iti catharvani srutih// paras tu nirgunah prokto ahamkara-yuto 'parah/. tayor abheda-vijnanam yoga ity abhidhiyate// 144 See ibid., chapters 6, 9 and 37. especially 6. 30 (on the benefits of besmearing the head and body with the mud of the Ganges) and 14. 218-9 (on the benefits of throwing the hair, bones, nails, teeth or ashes of a deceased person into the waters of the sacred river). 145 Ibid., 6. 65; 11.62; 23. 59-69; 14. 191; 37. 52-53; 37. 65; and so on 146 Ibid., 5. 53; 13. 65. 41

322 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS One of the striking features of the Brhannaradiya-purana is that it repeatedly praises Siva-worship and declares the unity of Siva and Visnu-Narayana. Among the best Bhagavatas it includes those persons who love and worship Siva, constantly meditate upon him, mutter his five-syllabled Mantra (namah sivaya), offer costly sacrifices to him as well as to Hari with great devotion, utter the names of these two deities, carry the sectarian mark Tripundra, and wear Rudraksas (5. 56-61). It gives out Siva to be a form of Visnu-Narayana (15.74) and regards as 'venerable that Brahmin who looks without any idea of distinction, to the Lord of gods (devesa) consisting of Narayana and Siva' (3. 63). Severely denouncing those who distinguish between these two gods it says: (3.63). up, "The Phallus (linga) assumes the form of Hari, and Hari bears the form of the Phallus. There is not the slightest difference (between them), (and) one who makes (any) distinction, acquires sin. "(Only) the sinners merged in the ocean of nescience find distinction in the eternal god designated as Hari and Samkara. "It is that imperishable god, the Lord of the worlds and the Cause of causes, who devours up the universe at the end of a Yuga by assuming the form of Rudra. "Rudra protects the entire universe in the form of Visnu; and Hari creates it by assuming the form of Brahma and (then) devours it himself. "The man who differentiates between Hari, Samkara and Brahma, suffers in hell as long as the moon and stars exist. "It is the decided opinion of the holy scriptures that one who looks upon Hara, Hari and Vidhatr as one, attains supreme bliss."147 In Brhannaradiya-purana 14. 214-5 Dharmaraja (Kala) says to king Bhagiratha, "Worship Hara and Visnu, O king, by taking them to be one. The person who distinguishes (between them) becomes guilty of misdeeds of the magnitude of decades of thousands of Brahmin-murder. Siva is (the same as) this Hari in person, (and) it is Hari who is Siva himself. One who makes any distinction between them suffers in crores of hells" (14. 214-215). 147 Ibid., 6. 41-46.

THE MINOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 323 We have already seen how the Brhannaradiya-purana extols even a Candala who is sincerely devoted to Visnu-Narayana and takes him to be superior to a Brahmin who is not so. But this attitude relates simply to religious fervour and does not mean that the Brhannaradiya-purana has no respect for the Vedas and the Vedic views of life and conduct. On the other hand, it prescribes the study of the Vedas to the members of the higher three castes (22. 20, 23-25), declares these works to be as much superior to other scriptures as Kesava is to the other gods (32.9), repeatedly identifies them with Visnu-Narayana, 148 takes Dharma to be rooted in them (4. 17, 27. 64), and urges people to practise, for the satisfaction of Narayana, the duties enjoined by these sacred works (3. 80, 27. 64). It includes among the superiors (guravah) those people who study the Vedas and correctly explain their meanings to others, and assigns to them the foremost position among those who are specially venerable (9. 89-90, 98). In its opinion, a teacher of the Vedas is to be saluted first of all (23.35), and one becomes a Sudra and goes to hell by studying scriptures excluding the Vedas (23. 66). It regards Gayatri as destructive of all sins and as the mother of the Vedas (6. 61-65), severely denounces those who hate or sell these works, and advises people not to invite under any circumstances in a Sraddha ceremony a Brahmin who is bereft of the Vedas' (26. 35). It is very natural that with its high regard for the Vedas the Brhannaradiya-purana should extol 'Smrti' which records Dharma rooted in the Vedas. As a matter of fact, it urges people to follow their own Grhya-sutras in kindling fire (agnyadhana) and performing homa and other Grhya rites including the sacraments (22. 10 a, 26.50 ff., 23.9), encourages them to practise Dharma as declared in the Smrtis (24.46), looks upon the sellers of these works as great sinners like those of the Vedas (12. 9), and prescribes the observance of Vratas and other religious rites on Tithis determined in accordance with the directions of the Smrtis (27. 63). It firmly believes in caste-system, knows the distinction between the various castes and subcastes, and fully recognises the supremacy of Brahmins in society. It warns with residence in hell 148 Ibid., 4. 17, 23. 68, and so on. 149 Ibid., 4. 17; 12. 4-5, 8-9; 14. 49.

324 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS those who take, enhance or collect the revenue of a village belonging to a Brahmin and all those who support others in doing so (14. 122- 124). In its account of the gradual improvement attained by creatures in their successive births it mentions the following castes, of which each succeeding one is taken to be superior to that immediately preceding it: Carmakara, Candala, Vyadha, Rajaka, Kumbhakara, Lohakara, Suvarnakara, Tantravaya, Vanik, Sikhajata (?), Dhavaka, Lekhaka, Bhrtaka, Sasanaharin (30. 2). It assigns the Sudras and women to a very low position in the social fabric. About these important members of the Hindu society it says: "A twice-born man who, being invited by a Sudra, takes his meal, is known as a drinker of wine and thrown outside (the pale of) all (Srauta and Smarta) Dharma (14. 39). "Or, a twice-born man who, being asked by a Sudra, takes his meal, is known as a drinker of wine and deprived (of the right of forming) all (Srauta and Smarta) work (14. 40). ... � 1 � .. per- "A man who bows down to a Linga or (an image of) Visnu worshipped by a Sudra, has no escape (from sin) even by (practising) decades of thousands of penances (14. 54). a "One who salutes a Linga or (an image of) Hari touched by Sudra, undergoes all (kinds of) suffering till the moon and the stars exist (14.55). ... ... ... "By saluting a Linga worshipped by an Abhira one goes to hell, O king, even though one may be versed in the Vedas or know the meanings of all Sastras (14. 56 b-57). "One who salutes a Linga or even (an image of) Visnu worshipped by women, lives in Raurava (hell) with a crore of his generations up to the end of a kalpa (14.58). "A Sudra or women must not touch a Linga from the time it is established according to (the right) procedure by those versed in the mantras (14.59).

THE MINOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 325 "Neither women nor those invested with the sacred thread, nor the Sudras, O lord of men, have the right of touching (an image of) Visnu or Samkara (14. 60). ... ... "A man who salutes a Linga or (an image of) Visnu consecrated by a Sudra, meets with endless miseries in this very world, not to speak of the next one (14. 62). "One who salutes a Linga or (an image of) Visnu worshipped by an Abhira, meets with destruction, O lord of men, What is the good of speaking anything more? (14. 63). "By touching (an image of) Kesava or Siva a Sudra, one not invested with the sacred thread, women, and a 'fallen' man (patita) suffer in hell (14. 64). ... � OD ... "There is no atonement for those who have association ... with Sudra women, (and) nourish their body with food received from Sudras, ... ••� (14. 66-67). •� *** � � "A man who reads the Vedas in the proximity of women and Sudras, goes to hells successively during thousands of crores of kalpas" (14. 144). The Brhannaradiya-purana warns students against having any contact with Sudras (23. 32); and in connection with one's profession in distress it says; "Even in dire distress a twice-born man must not take to the profession of Sudras. If an infatuated twice-born man does so, he is looked upon as a Candala. "Brahmins, Ksatriyas and Vaisyas (visah) are well-known as 'twiceborn' people. And they have four stages of life, there being no fifth" (23. 31-32). From the above statements about the Sudras and women it appears that these members of the Hindu society were seriously influenced by the ideas and practices of the extra-Vedic sectaries, especially the Buddhists and the Tantriks. As a matter of fact, the Brhannaradiya-purana amply testifies to the great spread of Buddhism and Tantricism, which threatened the very basis of the Varnasramadharma of the Vedas. It

326 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS uses the name 'Pasanda' for the Buddhists and the Tantriks and defines it saying: "As the Bauddhas decry the Vedas, they are called Pasandins" (14.70), "Those who have ceased to perform the sacrifices to the gods and Pitrs and strayed from the Vedic way (of life), are well-known as Pasandas and undergo a multitude of sufferings" (14. 186), "A Pasanda is so called by the wise on account of his forsaking the duties of his own caste" (22. 9), "One who, after forsaking his own (lawful) work, takes to the work of others, is known as a Pasanda and thrown outside (the pale of) all (Srauta and Smarta) Dharma" (23. 2), and "That cunning twice-born mortal, who does not perform Samdhya (i.e. the morning, noon and evening prayer) in times when there is no calamity, is known as a Pasanda and placed outside all (Srauta and Smarta) work" (25. 29). a That in the above passages the name Pasanda was applied for the Tantriks also is shown by the mention at several places of the worship of the Linga or the images of Visnu and Siva by the Pasandas. For instance, in chap. 14 the Brhannaradiya-purana says that 'by saluting: Linga worshipped by the Pasandas one is reduced to the state of a Pasanda even though he may be versed in the Vedas and know the meanings of all Sastras' (verse 56), and that '(a twice-born man) must not worship even in dream (an image of) Visnu or Samkara (which has been) worshipped by those who have forsaken the customs and usages (acara) of their own orders of life' (verse 61). As these extraVedic sectaries did not follow the Vedic way of life and disproved the efficacy of Vedic sacrifices by puzzling argumentation, and as associa tion with them made others acquire their habits (21. 53-55), the Brihannaradiya-purana repeatedly warns people against talking,¹ or having any other kind of contact, with them. It says: 150 "One who enters the house of a Bauddha even in great distress, has no escape (from sin) even by (practising) hundreds of penances. "The Bauddhas are called Pasandins, because they decry the Vedas. 150 Ibid., 17. 20 (pasandalapa-varjitah).

THE MINOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 327 So, a twice-born man, if he has (any) regard for the Vedas, must not look at them. "(One acquires sin), in case one enters the house of a Bauddha knowingly or unknowingly. There is no escape (from sin), (if does so) knowingly. This is the decision of Sastras". (14. 69-71). Going to deal with the duties (dharma) of the different castes and orders of life as prescribed by Manu and others' (manvadyais coditam ca yat-22. 6), the Brihan-naradiya-purana encourages the due performance of Yuga-dharmas by all the castes 151 but names a number of lawful practices which, being considered unfavourable for the attainment of heaven and disliked by the people, have been forbidden by wise men in the Kali age. These practices have been mentioned in the following verses: "karmana manasa vaca yatnad dharman samacaret/, asvargyam loka-vidvistam dharmam apy acaren na tu// samudra-yatra-svikarah kamandalu-vidharanam/ dvijanam asavarnasu kanyasupayamas tatha// devarena sutotpattir madhuparke pasor vadhah/, mamsa-danam tatha sraddhe vanaprasthasramas tatha// dattaksatayah kanyayah punar-danam parasya ca/ dirgha-kalam brahmacaryam naramedhasvamedhakau// mahaprasthana-gamanam gomedham ca tatha makham/ iman dharman kali-yuge varjyan ahur manisinah//" (22.12-16). "One should carefully practise dharma (lawful duty) by work, mind and word, but one should not perform an act which, though legal, is unfavourable for (the attainment of) heaven and is disliked by the people. "Undertaking of sea voyage; carrying of a kamandalu; marriage of twice-born people with girls of other castes. "Raising of issue by the husband's brother; killing of an animal in Madhuparka; offering of meat in Sraddha; the stage of a foresthermit. "Offering again (in marriage), to another (bridegroom), of a married 151 Ibid., 22. 11 a-yuga-dharmah parigrahya varnair etair yathocitam.

328 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS girl whose marriage was not consummated; celibacy (i.e. studentship) for a long period; (performance of) human sacrifice and horse sacrifice. "Starting on a great journey; and cow sacrifice.-These lawful acts have been declared by the wise as forbidden in the Kali age. " As to the Acaras (customs and usages) deserving practice, the Brihannaradiya-purana attaches much importance to those enjoined by one's caste and order of life and decries wilful negligence of these. saying: "One who gives himself up to devotion to Hari without transgressing one's own acara, goes to the abode of Visnu which is seen by gods. "O powerful sage, one who, while performing the duties declared by the Vedas and required by one's own order of life, engages himself in meditation on Hari, attains final beatitude. "Dharma arises from acara, and Acyuta is the lord of Dharma. Being worshipped by one who is engaged in (the practice of) acara enjoined by one's stage of life Hari gives everything. "He who, though being a master of Vedanta together with the Angas, falls from his own acara, is known as 'patita' (fallen from his caste), because he is outside (the pale of Srauta and Smarta) work. "He who deviates from acara enjoined by his own order of life, is said to be 'patita', no matter whether he is given to devotion to Hari or engaged in meditation on him. "O best of the twice-born, neither the Veda nor devotion to Hari or Mahesvara purifies that fool who has fallen from acara. "Neither visit to holy places, O Brahman, nor residence in sacred Tirthas, nor performance of various sacrifices saves one who has discarded acara. "Heaven is attained by (the practice of) acara, happiness is attained by (the practice of) acara, and final release is attained by (the practice of) acara. What is not attained by (the practice of) acara?"152 The Brhannaradiya-purana further adds: "Visnu is not satisfied with one who sticks only to Bhakti after 152 Ibid., 4. 20-27.

THE MINOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 329 giving up (all religious) works, because he is to be worshipped with acara. "In all sacred scriptures acara has the first consideration. Dharma arises from acara, (and) Acyuta is the lord of Dharma. "Hence such devotion to Hari is to be practised as does not go against one's own Dharma. Dharma and Artha do not yield happiness to those who do not follow sadacara (practice of good men)."188 Feeling that faithful practice of acara may not be possible for all under all circumstances this work says: "sva-grame purnam acaram pathy ardham muni-sattamah '/ ature niyamo nasti mahapadi tathaiva ca //" (25. 16). "Complete acara (is to be practised) in (one's) own village, half (of the same) on the way (during a journey), O best of sages, and there is no rule in times of illness as well as in great distress." But it does not attach the same importance to all kinds of acara. It recommends vrddhacara' (practice of old men) as acceptable (vrddhacarah parigrahyah-24. 45) and says that 'gramacara' (peculiar practices of villages) may be followed without going against the prescriptions of Smrtis. 154 As regards 'desacara' (i. e. the peculiar practices of different countries) this work says: "desacarah parigrahyas tat-tad-desiyajair naraih/ anyatha patito jneyah sarva-dharma-bahiskrtah//" (22. 17). "The (peculiar) practices of (different) countries should be followed by the people born in those particular countries. Otherwise, one is known as 'fallen' (patita) and externed from all (Srauta and Smarta) Dharma." Among the peculiar customs then prevailing in the Hindu society the Brhannaradiya-purana mentions the following: difference of opinion as regards right for upanayana (investiture with the sacred thread) of the Kundas, Golakas, idiots and others, or of their sons; 155 a 153 Ibid., 14. 209-211. 154 Ibid., 22, 11-gramacaras tatha grahyah smrti-margavirodhatah. 155 Ibid., 23. 65-kunda-golakayoh kecij jadadinam ca sattamah/ 42 vadanti copanayanam tat-putresu ca kecana//

.330 156 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS householder's wearing of two sacrificial threads with an upper garment, two golden ear-ornaments (called kundala), a turban (usnisa), and footwears of wood and leather (paduke capy upanahau); 157 prohibition to a householder against wearing a single piece of cloth and keeping his hair loose during worship, acamana, bath, etc. (24. 25), against riding camels or cars drawn by these animals (24. 26), against touching the shade of a lamp, a beadstead, and one's body, and also a piece of cloth used for tying the hair, and dusts of goats and cats, 188 and against passing by a cow, a horse, an assembly, a crossway and a temple by keeping them to the left; 15 covering the earth with grass and carrying in hand a piece of wood at the time of passing stool or making water (25.4); and so on. As to the position of certain members of the Hindu society the Brhannaradiya-purana gives us interesting information. According to this work the following persons were looked down upon for their profession: a Naksatra-pathaka (also called Naksatra-patha-jivin), i.e. one studying the stars; a Devalaka (temple-priest); a Grama-yajaka (one serving as a priest for a village); a Loka-yajaka (public priest); a Bhisak or Bhisak-sastropajivin (physician); a Gayaka (singer); and a Kavya-kartr (composer of poems). About these persons the Brhannaradiya-purana makes the following statements: A gift made to a Naksatra-pathaka becomes futile (12.6), and he does not deserve salutation (23.38) or invitation in a Sraddha ceremony (26.11); taking of food offered by a Devalaka is equal to the drinking of wine (14.38); a Grama-yajaka does not deserve salutation (23.37) or invitation in a Sraddha ceremony (26.12); the Brihannaradiya-purana should not be read to a Loka-yajaka (1.48); one should bathe with one's garments at the sight of a Bhisak (24.30); and a Gayaka, a Kavya-kartr and a Bhisak-sastropajivin should not be invited in a Sraddha ceremony (26.17). 156 Ibid., 24. 19-yajnopavita-dvitayam sottariyam ca dharayet. 157 Ibid., 24. 20-22. 158 Ibid., 24. 32-dipa-khatva-tanu-cchaya kesa-vastram ghatodakam/ aja-marjara-renus ca hanti punyam pura-krtam// 159 Ibid., 24. 35-gam asvam ca sabham caiva tathaiva ca catuspatham/ devatayatanam caiva napasavyam vrajed dvijah//

THE MINOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 331 In connection with penance (prayascitta) treated of in chap. 28 the Brhannaradiya-purana names three varieties of wine (sura)-gaudi, madhvi and paisti (28.25) and eleven varieties of liquor (madya), viz., tala, panasa, draksa, kharjura-sambhava, madhuka, saila, avista, maireya, narikelaja, gaudi and madhvi (28.32-33). It declares all kinds of wine as untouchable and undrinkable to the members of the four castes, both male and female, and says that by taking wine (sura) as medicine for curing a disease one has to undergo two courses of Candrayana and to be invested with the sacred thread again (28.30), that food coming in contact with wine, water kept in a jar which contained wine, and articles of food soaked with wine, are to be considered as equal to wine itself (28.31), and that one guilty of adultery with the Sudra wife of one's teacher (guru), must practise the Prajapatya Vrata for three years (28.68). Like the Pancaratra Samhitas, the Brihannaradiya-purana prescribes the performance of Pranayama or the muttering of the Gayatri as atonement for sin caused by certain acts, viz., stealing of small quantities of gold (of the weights of a trasarenu, a niska, a rajasarsapa, a gosarsapa, and a yava), 10 touching of certain persons (viz., a woman in her monthly courses, a Candala, one guilty of a Mahapataka or heinous crime, a recently delivered woman, an outcast, and such washermen and others as have not washed their hands and mouths after taking food), 161 and hearing their voice in the course of a Vrata, etc. (28.92). According to this work the weight of a suvarna is as follows: 8 trasarenus = I niska, 3 niskas=1 rajasarsapa, 3 rajasarsapas=1 gosarsapa, 6 gosarsapas yava, 3 yavas = 1 krsnala, 5 krsnalas = 1 masa, 16 masas=1 suvarna. 18 I 162 In describing Yuga-dharma in chap. 38 the Brhannaradiya-purana says that no division of the Veda was made in the Krta-yuga (38. 8), that Narayana was white in the Kita-yuga, red in Treta, yellow in Dvapara, and black in Kali,16" and that the Veda was divided in the 160 Ibid., 28, 47-50. 161 Ibid., 28. 87-88. 162 Ibid., 28, 36-39. 163 Ibid., 38. 13, 14, 16 and 21,

332 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS Dvapara age (38. 17). As regards the conduct of the people of the Kali age this work makes, in the forms of prophecies, a number of interesting statements, some of which are as follows: "sarit-tire baddha-halair vapayisyanti causadhih/ alpam alpam phalam tasam bhavisyati kalau yuge// na vratani carisyanti brahmana veda-nindakah/ na yaksyanti na hosyanti hetu-vadair vinasitah// na kasyacid abhimato visnu-bhakti-paras tatha/ deva-puja-paran drstva upahasam prakurvate// kaleh prathama-pade 'pi vinindanti harim narah/ yugante 'pi harer nama naiva kascit smarisyati// kuhakair aksarais tatra hetu-vada-visaradaih/ pasandino bhavisyanti caturasramya-nindakah// na ca dvijati-susrusam na sva-dharma-pravartanam/ karisyanti tada sudrah pravrajya-lingino 'dhamah// sudra dharman pravaksyanti kuta-yukti-visaradah// asauca-yukta-matayah para-pakvanna-bhojinah/ bhavisyanti duratmanah sudrah pravrajitas tatha// utkoca-jivinas*** tatra mahapapa-ratas tatha/ bhavisyanty atha pasandah kapala bhiksavas tatha // dharma-vidhvamsa-silanam dvijanam vipra-sattamah/ (sudra dharman pravaksyanti pravrajya-linga-dharinah//185 ete canye ca bahavah pasanda vipra-sattamah/ brahmanah ksatriya vaisya bhavisyanti kalau yuge// gita-vadya-para vipra veda-deva-parammukhah/ bhavisyanti kalau prapte sudra-marga-pravartinah// 164 In the Visnudharma (chap. 105) there is mention of 'Utkocas' (or Utkaucas) as a class of heretics. See pp. 149 and 150 above. 165 This line (sudra dharman pravaksyanti etc.) occurs not in the Vangavasi Press (Calcutta) ed, but in the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) ed, of the Brhannaradiya-purana

THE MINOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS visvasa-hinah pisuna veda-deva-dvijatisu/ asamskrtokti-vaktaro bahu-dvesa-ratas tatha//. ... bhavisyanti kalau prapte rajano mleccha-jatayah// ... *** ... veda-ninda-paras caiva dharma-sastra-vinindakah/ sudra-vrttya ca jivanti dvija naraka-bhaginah// ... nagaresu ca gramesu prakaresv adhika janah/ cauradi-bhaya-bhitas ca kastha-yantrani kurvate// durbhiksa-kara-pidadhir ativopadruta janah/ ... 333 godhumadhyam yavannadhyam desam yasyanti duhkhitah// >>166 papa-jalena niratah (niyatah?) pasanda-jana-sanginah/ yada dvija bhavisyanti tada vrddhim gatah kalih//' "(People) will cause (men) with set ploughs (baddha-hala) to sow herbs on the banks of rivers, but the output of those (herbs) will be very scanty in the Kali age (38. 43). ... "The Brahmins, denouncing the Vedas, will not observe (any) vows, nor, being spoiled by (heretical) reasonings, will they perform any sacrifice or homa (38. 46). ••� ... � � � "A person sincerely devoted to Visnu will not be liked by any one, and people will ridicule (the devotees of Visnu,) finding (them) given to the worship of the god (38. 49 c-50 a). � "Even during the first quarter of the Kali age people will decry Hari, and at its end also none will remember his name (38. 52). *** ... "Being influenced by the roguish experts in (heretical) dialectics with (promises of) final beatitude people will become Pasandins and decry the four stages of life (38. 54). 166 Brihannaradiya-purana 38.43 46, 49 b-50 a, 52, 54-61, 64, 74 b, 79, 85-87, 91.

334 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS "At that time the vile Sudras, bearing the signs of mendicancy, will not serve the twice-born people, nor will they practise their own dharma (38. 55). "The Sudras, skilled in puzzling argumentation, will instruct dharma (38. 56). "The wicked Sudras will have unholy mental tendencies, turn wandering mendicants, and subsist on food prepared by others (38.57). "Living on bribe and being given to heinous crimes they will become Pasandas, Kapalas and Bhiksus (38. 58). "O best of Brahmins, the Sudras, bearing the signs of mendicancy, will instruct dharma to the twice-born men habituated to its destruction (38.59). "In the Kali age, O best of Brahmins, these and many other Brahmins, Ksatriyas and Vaisyas will become Pasandas (38. 60). "After the Kali age comes up, the Brahmins given to song and instrumental music but averse to the Vedas and the gods, will set themselves to the path of the Sudras (38. 61). ••� "(They will become) faithless and slanderous about the Vedas, gods and twice-born (men), utter unrefined speech, and be engaged in hostility with many (people) (38. 64). ** "After the Kali age comes up, persons belonging to the Mleccha tribes will become kings (38. 74 b). � ... �*� "Being given to the denouncement of the Vedas and decrying the Dharma-sastras, the twice-born (people) will live by (following) the profession of the Sudras deserving residence in hells (38.79). ... ... "Being afraid of theives etc. the majority of people in cities and villages will set machines of wood in walls (or ramparts) (38. 86). "Being very much affected by the sufferings caused by famine and taxation people will feel distressed and migrate to countries rich in wheat and barley-food (38.87).

THE MINOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 335 "When, being bound by a multitude of sins, the twice-born people will associate with the extra-Vedic people (pasanda-jana), then Kali will grow (in power) (38. 91)." From the above statements it is evident that at the time when the Brhannaradiya-purana was composed there was a great spread of the extraVedic faiths, especially Buddhism and Tantricism, which seriously affected the social discipline required for the Dharma rooted in the Vedas. Following the Bhagavad-gita the Brihan-naradiya-purana (3.78 ff.) encourages selfless work, which is to be done only for the satisfaction. of Visnu and not with a desire for the reward. It advises people to work untiringly and to dedicate all their actions to Visnu in case they desire to enjoy their fruits in the next world (3. 77). Like many other Puranas this work has a pessimistic view of life and takes the body to be 'rooted in sin' and 'engaged in doing sinful acts' (31.6). In chap. 29 it gives an account of the sufferings of the sinners in the path of Yama and describes Citra-gupta, an officer of Yama, thus: "pralayambudhi-nirghosah anjanadri-sama-prabhah/ vidyut-prabhayudhair bhimo dvavimsad-bhuja-samyutah// yojana-traya-vistaro raktakso dirgha-nasikah/ damstra-karala-vadano vapi-tulya-vilocanah// mrtyu-jvaradibhir yuktas citragupto vibhisanah/" (29.50-52 a). "Having a thundering voice like the roar of the ocean at the dissolution (of the universe), possessing splendour like that of a mountain of collyrium, looking dreadful with weapons shining like lightning, and having twenty-two hands, an extent of three yojanas, red and well-like eyes, a long nose, and a mouth made dreadful by large teeth, Citragupta, attended by Death, Fever and others, looks extremely terrible." We shall now discuss the date of composition of the present Brhannaradiya-purana From the analysis of the contents of this work given above it is evident that it is a purely sectarian work lacking all the characteristics of a Mahapurana. Its title 'Brhannarada' or 'Brhannaradiya', occurring

336 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS in the body of the chapters¹? as well as in the colophons, indicates that it is not the original Naradiya-purana, the words 'brhat,' 'vrddha' etc. being found to be prefixed to the titles of comparatively late works only. As the present Naradiya-purana incorporates all the chapters of the Brhannaradiya, 168 we cannot agree with Winternitz in holding that the Brhannaradiya-purana 'is generally so called to distinguish it from the Narada - or Naradiya - Upapurana'.169 That this work is merely an Upapurana and not the same as the genuine Naradiya-purana, is shown definitely by the Matsya, Skanda and Agni-purana, of which the first describes the Naradiya-purana as follows: "yatraha narado dharman brhat-kalpasrayani ca/ pancavimsat-sahasrani naradiyam tad ucyate//" (Matsya-purana 53.23) "That (Purana,) in which Narada proclaims the (religious) duties as well as (other matters) connected with the Brhat Kalpa and (which contains) 25000 (verses), is called Naradiya". 167 See Brar. 1. 36 and 66, and 38. 132. See also foot-note 114 above, 168 The chapters of the Brhannaradiya-purana, as occurring in the Naradiya-purana, are as follows: Brhannaradiya-purana, chapters 1-11 12, 1-12 13. 1-5 13. 6-39 Naradiya-purana, =chapters 1-11. -cf. 12. 1-28. - ==== H 12, 29-58. = 12. 59-98 (on the story of king Virabhadra of Gaudadesa, whose minister Buddhisagara excavated a dried up tank). 13. 40-212 chap. 13. =chap. 14 (on occasions for impurity, and the requisite penances for purification). Brhannaradiya-purana, chapters 14-17 18. 1-50 18. 51-131 chapters 19-24 chap.25(except} verses chapters 26-34 35. 1-70 35.71-129 chapters 36-37 Naradiya-purana, =chapters 15-18. =chap. 19. 20. 3.86. =chapters, 21-26. -chap 27 (except verses 23 h-65 a on snana and samdhya with the perfor mance of nyasa). =chapters 28-36. = chap. 37. 38. 38, 1-126 (ex-=chap. 41 (especept verses 127-149) =chapters 39-40. cially except verses 116-122). 169 Winternitz, History of Indian Literature, Vol. I, p. 557.

THE MINOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 337 The Skanda (VII. 1.2.43) and the Agni-purana (272,8), which do not differ materially from the Matsya in laying down the characteristics of the Naradiya-purana, describe this work thus: "yatraha narado dharman brhat-kalpasrayams tv iha (Agni-purana-brhat-kalpasritan iha)/ pancavimsat-sahasrani (Agni-purana-pancavimsa-sahasrani) naradiyam tad ucyate //," "That (Purana,) in which Narada proclaims such (religious) duties in this world as were connected with the Brhat Kalpa and (which contains) 25000 (verses), is called Naradiya". From these descriptions it is evident that the Naradiya-purana, as known to the Matsya, Skanda and Agni-purana, had Narada as the principal speaker, described the (religious) duties connected with the Brhat Kalpa, and contained 25000 verses. But in the Brihannaradiya-purana, though Narada is said to have spoken to Sanatkumara on various kinds of (religious) duties, there is no mention of the Brhat Kalpa, and the number of verses is only about 3600. Moreover, the Ekamra-purana and the Brhaddharma-purana clearly distinguish the Brhannaradiya from the Naradiya-purana, raming both of them side by side in their lists of Upapuranas; and the manner in which the Smrti-writers refer to and quote verses from this Upapurana as well as from the Naradiya, shows that it was known to them under the title Brhannaradiya-purana and not as Naradiya. So, there is little scope for doubt that our Brhannaradiya is an Upapurana quite distinct from the Naradiya-purana This work names the Rasis (zodiacal signs) and the week-days on more occasions than one, 171 and betrays its knowledge of the Markandeya-purana in the following verse: "aradhito jagannatho markandeyena dhimata/ purana-samhitam kartum dattavan varam acyutah//" (5.4). 170 For these lists see Chapter I (pp. 13 and 10) above. 171 For the names of the Rasis see Brihannaradiya-purana 6.31, 6. 39. and 27. 22-25, and for those of the week-days see ibid., 13. 80, 88, 89 and 91 (Bhanu-vara, Somavara, Indu-vara). No work preceding the Yajnavalkya-smrti betrays any knowledge of the 43

338 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS "Being propitiated by the wise Markandeya, Acyuta, the lord of the world, granted (him) a boon to compile a Purana-samhita". 172 A comparison of the description of the conduct of the people and the activities of the Pasandas in the Kali age, as given in Brhannaradiya-purana, chap. 38, with that occurring in Visnudharma, chap. 105, shows that the account of the former work is clearly based on that of the latter, from which it derives a good number of peculiar verses. It is cognisant of Visnu's Sakti and says that this Sakti permeates the whole world and effects its creation, preservation and destruction, and that she is identical with Uma, Laksmi, Durga and others and also with Prakrti and Maya (or Mahamaya) which subjects all creatures to rebirths. Thus, the Brhannaradiya-purana records a developed Sakti theory, which points to a date posterior to that of the Jayakhyasamhita 173 and not earlier than about 550 A. D. By its statements that even Ajamila, a sinner and drunkard, earned freedom from sins and attained the highest region by simply uttering the Narayana'174 (which was given to his youngest son) and that the great elephant (gajendra) got free from the clutch of the crocodile by praising the god Visnu-Narayana, 175 the Brhannaradiya-purana clearly name Rasis, which, therefore, appear to have been unknown ro the Indians down to the beginning of the second century A.D. The earliest dated mention of a week-day has been traced in the Eran inscription of 484 A.D. (See Fleet, Gupta Inscriptions, pp. 88-89). 172 See, for instance, Brihannaradiya-purana 38. 52, 54-58, 64 b, etc., for which, as occurring in the Visnudharma, see foot-note 108 on pp. 149-150 above. We have already seen that the date of composition of the Visnudharma is to be placed between 200 and 300 A.D. (See p. 143 above). 173 This Samhita is dated about 450 A.D., and in it Laksmi, Jaya, Kirti and Maya are called Visnu's Sakti but are not said to play any part in creation. 174 Brihannaradiya-purana 2. 44- suraparo 'pi yannama kirtayitva hy ajamilah/ prapede paramam sthanam Also 11. 29 .11. ajamilo 'pi papatma yan-namoccaranoddhrtah/ praptavan paramam dhama 175 Ibid., 2. 28-yan-nama-samkirtanato gajendro grahogra-bandhan mumuce sa eva], *** Wh

THE MINOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 339 refers to Bhagavata-purana VI. 1-2 and VIII.2-4 respectively. It knows Bharavi's Kiratarjuniya and Bhatti's Ravana-vadha (alias Bhatti-kavya), some of the expressions of which it imitates here and there. 176 It derives a complete verse¹?? from Bhartrhari's Niti-sataka and composes two others 178 in imitation of a verse of his Vairagya-sataka. It speaks very highly of the Tulasi plant and, unlike other early works, deifies it and inculcates its worship. So, this Upapurana cannot be dated earlier than about the last quarter of the seventh century A. D. The doctrine of nonduality and illusion, summarily referred to in Brihannaradiya-purana 31. 57 ff., shows that it could not have been written much earlier than Samkaracarya. Again, a Manuscript of the Brhannaradiya-purana, lying in the Dacca Univercity Library, is dated Saka 1578 (=1656 A.D.); 179 another, preserved in the Durbar Library, Nepal, bears the date La.-Sam.425 (= ( =1544 A.D.); 180 and a third, kept in the India Office Library, London, is dated 1535 A. D. 181 The Text of this work, as preserved in these 176 Compare, for instance, Brihannaradiya-purana 18. 108 (samyag-viveka-sunyatvam apadam hi padam mahat) and 32, 29 (vapur vinasa-nilayam apadam paramam padam) with Kiratarjuniya 2. 30 (avivekah param apadam padam) and 11.12-13 respectively, and Brihannaradiya-purana 7. 9-10 (iyaja so 'svamedhan vai | atarpayat â€� suran sarvan krtartham atmanam ... ... *** || aransta niti-sastresu vyajesta paripanthinah, mene //) with Ravana-vadha 1.2 (so 'dhyaista vedams tridasan ayassta pitrrn atarpsit samamamsta bandhun/ vyajesta sadvargam aramsta nitau samulaghatam nyavadhid arims ca//) 177 Brihannaradiya-purana 35. 37- mrga-mina-sajjananam trna-jala-samtosa-vihita-vrttinam/ lubdhaka-dhivara-pisuna niskarana-vairino jagati// This verse is the same as verse 50 of Bhartrhari's Niti-sataka. 178 Brihannaradiya-purana 32. 26-27- he janah kim na pasyadhvam ayuso 'rdham tu nidraya/ hrtam ca bhojanadyais ca kiyad ayuh samahrtam//, kiyad ayur bala-bhavad vrddha-bhavat kiyaddhrtam/ kiyad visaya-bhogais ca kada dharman karisyatha// Compare these verses with the following verse (No. 49) of the Vairagya- sataka: ayur varsa-satam nrnam parimitam ratrau tad-ardham gatam tasyardhasya parasya cardham aparam balatva-vrddhatvayoh/ etc. 179-181 See foot-note 113 above.

340 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS Manuscripts, tallying fully with that given by the printed editions, the Brhannaradiya-purana cannot be dated later than the middle of the fifteenth century A. D. As Bhaskara (or Bhairava) 182 draws upon chap. 13 of the Brhannaradiya-purana in his Acara-nirnaya-bhaskara-samgraha, Mitra Misra upon chapters 2, 4, 11, 13, 24 and 25 in his Viramitrodaya, Anantabhatta upon chapters 13, 14 and 22-24 in his Vidhana-parijata, Sura Misra upon chap. 25 in his Jagannatha-prakasa, 183 Gopala-bhatta upon chapters 1-6, 11, 13, 18, 21, 23, 28, 32, 34, 35, 37 and 38 in his Haribhakti-vilasa, Raghunandana upon chapters 7, 14, 22 and in his Smrti-tattva, Ganapati (of Mithila) upon chapters 14 and 15 in his Ganga-bhakti-tarangini, Govindananda Kavikamkanacarya upon chapters 7, 14 and 25-27 in his Varsa-kaumudi, Sraddha-kaumudi and Suddhi-kaumudi, and Srinathacarya-cudamani upon chapters 7, 14 and 24 in his Krtya-tattvarnava, 184 and as Sulapani refers definitely to and quotes a line from chap. 16 with the mention of the title Brhannaradiya' in his Vrata-kala-viveka, 185 the Brhannaradiya-purana can by no means be placed later than 1300 A. D. It has already been said that the Brhaddharma-purana, which was written in Bengal most probably in the last half of the thirteenth century A. D., 186 24 names both the 182 In the Asiatic Society of Bengal (Calcutta) Manuscript (No. 5946) of the Acara-nirnaya-bhaskara-samgraha, which is the only Manuscript of this work hitherto discovered, the name of the author has been given as Bhairava in the second introductory verse and as Bhaskara in the final colophon. But unfortunately both the introductory verses and the final colophon were added in a later hand. As the name 'Bhaskara' occurs in the title of the work, we have preferred it to 'Bhairava' given in the second introductory verse. 183 This is an extensive Smrti work composed at Indraprastha (Delhi) in Samvat 1654 (=1598 A.D.) under the patronage of Jagannatha, a scion of the Solar dynasty, who was born in Samvat 1603 (=1547 A.D.). 184 A complete list of the quoted verses will be given in the final Volume of the present work. 185 See Vrata-kala-viveka, p. 20-brhannaradiyokta-margasirsadi-dvadasamasiya-dvadasivratasya 'margasirse subhe masi dvadasyam samupositah' ityadivacanena *** The quoted line is much the same as Brihannaradiya-purana 16. 4. 186 A detailed discussion on the date and provenance of the Brhaddharma-p, will be made in a subsequent Volume of the present work. See,

THE MINOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 341 Brhannaradiya and the Naradiya-purana in its list of Upapuranas. The Uttara-khanda (of the Bengal Siva-purana), which was composed in Bengal not later than the twelfth century A. D., 187 names a 'Naradiya' Purana called Brhannarada' and distinguishes it from the major Purana called Naradiya, saying: "naradoktam puranam tu naradiyam pracaksate/ tasmad anyan naradiyam brhannarada-samjnakam//''188 "But the Purana spoken out by Narada (people) call Naradiya. The Naradiya other than that (Purana) is named Brhannarada". Like the Brhaddharma-purana, the Ekamra-purana also names both the Brhannaradiya and the Naradiya-purana in its list of Upapuranas; and we shall see afterwards that the Ekamra-purana was written in Orissa some time during the tenth or eleventh century A.D.189 So, the Brhannaradiya-purana has to be dated not later than the middle of the tenth century A.D. Here we should like to examine the mutual relation between the Brhannaradiya-purana and the present Naradiya and see whether this relation renders us any help in making a nearer approach to the date of composition of the former work. We have already seen how the present Naradiya-purana incorporates all the chapters of the Brhannaradiya with the exception of a few verses. There is no doubt that it is the Naradiya-purana which borrows these chapters from the Brhannaradiya. As a matter of fact, the present Naradiya-purana is practically an Upapurana in which there is no mention of the Brhat Kalpa and Narada appears not as a speaker anywhere in its two Parts (called Purva-bhaga and Uttara-bhaga) but however, Hazra in Journal of the University of Gauhati, Vol. VI, 1955, PP. 245-263. 187 A detailed analysis of the Bengal Siva-purana and a full discussion on its date will be made in Vol, III of the present work. For a preliminary study of this work see Hazra in Our Heritage, Vol. I, 1953, pp. 59-61 and 66-68. 188 Dacca University Manuscript No. 4233 (of the Uttara-khanda of the Siva-purana), chap. 23 (fol. 152 a). 189 The questions relating to the date and will be discussed in Vol. III of the present work. Orientalist, XVI, 1951, pp. 70-76. provenance of the Ekamra-purana Sec, however, Hazra in Poona

342 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS as a hearer, to whom Sanaka, Sanandana, Sanatkumara and Sanatana speak respectively in the four sections (Pada) of the First Part (Purvabhaga) only. Now, the question arises as to when the Naradiya-purana incorporated the Brhannaradiya to form the first section of its First Part. An Examination of the Smrti commentaries and Nibandhas shows that several hundreds of verses on Sraddha, Tithi-nirnaya, Ganga-mahatmya, Ganga-snana, etc. have been quoted from the 'Naradiya-purana' or 'Naradiya' in Devanabhatta's Smrti-candrika, Hemadri's Caturvarga-cintamani, Bhaguri's Smrti-sara-samuccaya (fol. 41 b), Sridatta Upadhyaya's Samaya-pradipa (fol. 10 a), Candesvara Thakkura's Krtya-ratnakara (p. 637) and Tithi-nirnaya (fol. 12 a), Madhavacarya's commentary on the Parasara-smrti, Madanapala's Mada naparijata (pp. 265, 507, 539), Vidyapati Upadhyaya's Gamga-vakyavali, Rudradhara Upadhyaya's Varsa-krtya (pp. 157-158), Krsnananda Agamavagisa's Tantrasara (I, p. 47), Vacaspati-misra's Tirtha-cintamani, Raghunandana's Smrti-tattva, Gopala-bhatta's Haribhakti-vilasa, Gadadhara's Kalasara, Mitra Misra's Viramitrodaya, Sura Misra's Jagannatha-prakasa (folios 74 b, 78 b, 79 a), and many other works. Most of these quoted verses occur in the Uttara-bhaga of the present Naradiya-purana, 190 but only a very few lines 101 can be traced in PurvaFor a list of these verses see R. C. Hazra, Studies, pp. 315-317. The verses ascribed to the 'Naradiya-purana' or 'Naradiya' (1) Candesvara's Tithi-nirnaya, fol. 12 a in (3) Ganapati's Narasimha-purana I. 23. Ganga-bhaktitarangini, (2) Vidyapati's fol. 5 b Narasimha-purana II. 39. 25 b-26 a. Ganga-vakyavali, p. 259 Narasimha-purana II. 38. 38. fol. 15 b Nar, II. 38. 34. fol. 52 a Narasimha-purana II. 38. 38. - 191 Viz., two lines 'yani kani ca papani etc.' (=Narasimha-purana I. 23. 8) quoted in Hemadri's Caturvarga-cintamani, II. i, p. 995, and III. ii, p. 153, Candesvara's Tithi-nirnaya, fol. 12 a, and Gadadhara's Kalasara, p. 127; seven lines from 'asvayuk-suklanavami etc.' (=Narasimha-purana I. 25. 52 b-55) quoted in Hemadri's Caturvarga-cintamani, III. i, p. 255; two lines balapatyas ca garbhinyah etc.' (=Narasimha-purana I. 7. 52) quoted in Madhavacarya's commentary on the Parasara-smrti (II. i, p. 59); eight lines (=Narasimha-purana I. 28. 2 b, 20 b, 63-64 a, 67 and 69 a) quoted in

THE MINOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 343 bhaga, chapters 1-41 (which, as we have already seen, are very much the same as Brhannaradiya-purana, chapters 1-38), although among these chapters there are some which deal elaborately with the said topics (viz., Sraddha, Tithi-nirnaya, Ganga-mahatmya, Ganga-snana, etc.). It is particularly remarkable that of the numerous verses ascribed to the Naradiya-purana' or 'Naradiya' in Devanabhatta's Smrti-candrika, Vidyapati Upadhyaya's Ganga-vakyavali, Gopala-bhatta's Haribhakti-vilasa, Ganapati's Ganga-bhakti-tarangini, and Sura Misra's Jagannathaprakasa, not a single occurs in the first section (comprising chapters 1-41) of Naradiya-purana, Purva-bhaga, and that, of more than a century of verses quoted by Hemadri from the same work, only nine lines (quoted in Caturvarga-cintamani II. i, p. 995, III. i, p. 255, and III. ii, p. 153) agree with Naradiya-purana I. 23. 8 and I. 25. 52 b-55. Similar is the case with Raghunandana, Gadadhara and several others, very few of whose quotations from the 'Naradiya-purana' are traceable in the first section of Naradiya-purana, Purva-bhaga. This shows that the 'Naradiya-purana', known to Devanabhatta, Hemadri and many others, constitutes a part of the Uttara-bhaga of the present Naradiya-purana and did not comprise the Brhannaradiya. coincidences between the verses ascribed by these writers to the 'Naradiya-purana', on the one hand, and those of chapters 1-41 of Naradiya-purana, Purva-bhaga, on the other, must be explained by saying that these particular verses occurred in the original Naradiya-purana now lost to us, and that they have been retained in the Brhannaradiya-purana but lost from the 'Naradiya-purana' known to Devanabhatta, Hemadri and others. As a matter of fact, the Uttara-bhaga of the present Naradiya-purana begins abruptly without introducing the interlocutors Vasistha and Mandhatr or explaining the occasion for Vasistha's narration of the Purana topics. This shows that the 'Naradiya-purana' known to Devanabhatta, Hemadri and others has not been preserved completely in the Uttarabhaga of the present Naradiya. The rare From the above discussion it is evident that the determination of Govindananda's Sraddha-kaumudi, pp. 79, 83, 169 and 172; and five lines (=Narasimha-purana I. 27. 66, 30. 9 b-13 a, and 13. 98 a) quoted in Raghunandana's Smrtitattva, I, pp. 369 and 543, and II, p. 365.

344 STUDIES IN THE UPAPURANAS the period of incorporation of the Brhannaradiya-purana into the present Naradiya is useless for any chronological deduction with respect to the former work. We are, therefore, obliged to place the date of its comand A.D. As this work does not appear to position between 75° to have any major interpolation, this date may safely be taken to be that of all its parts. 900 Though being a comparatively late work and having its origin in a society which saw a great spread of Buddhism and Tantricism, the Brhannaradiya-purana is entirely free from Tantric influence. It recommends the drawing of the Sarvatobhadra-mandala and its painting with various hues in certain religious rites 192 but does not include the Tantric Yantra among the mediums of worship," nor does it prescribe any Tantric Mantra or symbol or recognise the authority of the Tantric works. 193 one Although we have got no correct knowledge about the provenance of the Brhannaradiya-purana, there is little doubt about the fact that it was composed somewhere in Northern India. It repeatedly mentions and praises Prayaga and the confluence of the Ganga and the Yamuna,194 and especially Varanasi and the Siva-linga there, 195 refers, on occasion, to the use of cars drawn by camels (ustra-yana-Brihannaradiya-purana 24. 26), and names the following twelve rivers as specially sacred: Godavari, Bhimarathi, Krsna, Reva, Sarasvati, Tungabhadra, Kaveri, Kalindi, Bahuda, Vetravati, Tamraparni and Satadru¹6 (most of them belonging to Southern India). On the other hand, it is the Ekamra-purana (written in Orissa) which is the carliest work to name the Brhannaradiya-purana and to recognise it as an authoritative Upapurana. Following the Ekamra-purana, two Puranic works of Bengal, viz., the Uttara-khanda (of the Bengal Siva-purana) and the Brhaddharma-purana, recognise the authority of the Brhannaradiya-purana without a shade of doubt. Among the Smrtiwriters it is Sulapani of Bengal who is the first to draw upon this work; and it is remarkable that the comparatively early Smrti-writers 192 See Brihannaradiya-purana 16. 83, and 17. 27. 193 Viz., Pratima, Dvija, Bhumi, Agni, Surya, Citra, etc. Brihannaradiya-purana 31. 33. 194 See Brihannaradiya-purana 1. 41, 5, 6. 9, 6. 37, and so on. 6. 195 Ibid., 6. 37, 6. 48, 33. 71, 34. 54-55, and so on. 196 Ibid., 6. 32-33.

THE MINOR VAISNAVA UPAPURANAS 345 recognising the authority of the Brhannaradiya-purana belong mostly to Bengal and very rarely to Mithila, that this work came to be accepted as an authority on Dharma in other parts of Northern India much later, and that it was unknown in Southern India to a still later period. So, it seems that some person from the land about the Narmada or Varanasi migrated to the eastern part of Orissa or the western part of Bengal and wrote the Brhannaradiya-purana immediately after settling there. It is perhaps for this reason that this work refers very often to the use and gift of betel-leaves ¹Âº7 and denounces the stealing of betelnuts (14. 43) and makes no mention of the rivers and holy places of Bengal, Orissa or Mithila. 197 The Brhannaradiya-purana contains a number of interesting lines and verses including the following: (a) sasankah sarvada duhkhi nihsamkah sarvada sukhi/ sarva-bhuta-hito danto nihsankah sarvadaiva hi// (4.74). (b) yasya mata grhe nasti bharya capriya_vadini/ aranyam tena gantavyam yatharanyam tatha grham // (10.44) (c) yasya mata grhe nasti putra dharma-parayanah/ sadhvi ca stri pati-prana yatavyam tena vai vanam// (10.48). (d) atma-buddhih subhakari guru-buddhir visesatah/ para-buddhir vinasaya stri-buddhih pralayamkari// (11.93). (e) tyaja durjana-samsargam bhaja sadhu-samagamam/, kuru punyam ahoratram smara visnum sanatanam // (15. 17). (f) na jatu kamah kamanam upabhogena samyati (31.99). (g) picumardah phaladhyo 'pi kakair eveha bhujyate (34. 13). (b) sujano na yati vairam para-hita-buddhir vinasa-kale 'pi/ 198 chede 'pi candana-tarur vasayati mukham kutharasya/(35.34).' The great popularity of the verses (b) and (d) in Bengal seems to point to this province as the place of origin of the Brhannaradiya-purana, which belongs to the Bhagavatas. 197 See ibid., 13. 142 (on praise of tambula-dana), 19.8 (on offer of tambula to Visnu in Haripancaka-vrata), 24. 36 (prohibition to take tambula in an impure state), 26. 3 (tambula-not to be taken by one performing Sraddha), 26. 78 (offer of tambula to the Brahmins fed in a Sraddha ceremony), 29. 33 (pleasure enjoyed by a giver of tambula). 198 This verse has been ascribed to Ravigupta in Sarngadhara-paddhati, p. 38 (No. 237), but quoted anonymously in Vallabhadeva's Subhasitavali, p. 38 (No. 241). 44