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CHAPTER 1 SOURCES OF ARCHITECTURAL CANONS The structural temples built in Gujarat through the ages indicate the evolution of a particulars regional phase of architectural form. Most of the monuments may have been built in accordance with specific canons followed by the architects of the different times. Some of the canons may have been adopted by them by oral-transmission of the art, while others may have been taken from written works of canonical character. It will be, therefore, interesting to investigate into the probable canonical sources on the basis of the architectural canons discerned in the extant structures. some (i) Early reference to architectural Canons. The earliest known works on Indian architecture seem to have been written as late as the 5 th or 6 th cent. A. D. but the earlier works on other subjects contain many important references to it. Some of them contain even regular sections on this subject, so an introduction to the architectural works may be preceeded by a review of the early references in non-architectural works. (a) Rgveda Samhita ( c. 4000-B. C.-1000 B. C.) 1 Some architectural traditions are recorded in the various hymns of Rgveda. One of the principal deities of this Veda i. e. Indra, is invoked to preside over the building site. He is described here as 'Vastospati Indra'. According to explanation offered by commantators on Rgveda Vastu means Antariksa and Vastospati indicates all heavenly deities. This meaning of 1. According to chronology given by P. V. Kane 'History of Dharmasastra' Vol. II. pt. l.

240 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Vastospati rightly fits in the later development of Vastu purusa whose different limbs constituted the abodes of different deities as many as forty-five. Further Vastospati is identified with Tastr or Tvastr, 5 the Divine Carpentar. Taksana is another word used in the sense of Carpentar in Rigveda and often later." Tastr or Tvastr, the Divine Carpenter sharpened the thunderbolt of Indra, and gave rise to the clan of Taksakas (carpenters). Agastya, other wise called Mana 9 is considered to be the earliest authorities on Vastuvidya i. e. architecture. He gave rise to two important traditions of Indian Architecture Mana-Carya i. e. Architect and Sutragrahina i. e. artisan. "Visvakarma' is invoked as a creater of the universe as a whole, which fits in the concept of Visvakarma as the primordial planner and architect-creater. 10 8 The Vedic works contain numerous words used in the sense of different types of houses. The word 'grha '11 is used 2. Rigveda VII Su.-54-55. 3. The work named Vastospatisukta is available in MSS form. ( Auf. cat. Vol. II p. 134 ). 4. Rigveda i, 61, 4, 105, 8; 130, 4; iii, 38, i; vii 32, 20; x. 93. 12; 119. 5. cf. Nirukta. v. 21. 5. Altharvaveda. xii 3. 33; Bloomfield, Hymns of Altharvaveda, 651. 6. Rigveda IX. 112. 1. 7. AV. x. 6, 3. Kathaka Samhita, xii, 10; xviii, 13. Maitrayani Samhita, ii, 9, 5, Vajsaniya Samhita, xvi, 27, xxx. 6 Satapatha Brahmana i, 1. 3, 12; iii 6, 4, 4, etc. 8. Rigveda | 32. 2. 9. Rigveda VII. 33, 10 (Agastya), 13, (Mana) 10. Rigveda x. 72. Winternitz, Meter A history of Indian literature', pp. 78.100. 11. Rigveda iii, 53,6 iv, 49, 6; viii, 10, 1; ii, 42, 3; V. 76, 4; x. 18, 12; 85, 26; 142, 4: 165, 2. AV. vii. 83, 1; x, 6, 4; i, 7, 4; iii 10, 11. vi. 137, 1; Aitareya Brahmana, viii, 21, ii 31, viii, 26. Vajasaneyi samhita, ii, 32; iv, 33; xviii 44, Satapatha Brahmana i, 1. 2, 22,: 6, 1, 19 etc...

Sources of Architectural Canons 241 to denote the 'house' of the Vedic India. Dama 12 or Dam has the same sense, while Pastya' and Harmya denote morespecially the home with its surroundings, the family settlement. The house held not only the family, which might be of considerable size, but also the cattle, 13 and the sheep at night. It was composed of several rooms, as the use of the plural indicates, and it could be securely shut up.18 The door (Dvar, Dvara) is often referred to, and from it the house is called Durona.16 Very little is known of the structure of the house. Presumably stone was not used, and houses were, as in Magasthenes time, 17 built of wood. The hymns of the Atharvaveda 18 give some information about the construction of a house, but the details are extremely obscure, for most of the expressions used do not recur in any context in which their sense is clear. In connection with the house, mention is made of four forms, which though primarily sacrificial in meaning, seem to designate parts of the building: Havirdhana ( oblation-holder) 'Agnisala, (fire-place), Patninama Sadana (wives room) and Sadas (sitting room ).19 The words like "Harmya" used 12. Rigveda i, 1, 8; 61, 9; 75, 5, 143, 4., ii 1, 2 etc. Vajasaneyi Samhita viii, 24. 13. Rigveda v, VII, 56, 16; AV. i, 3, 4; ix 3, 13. 14. Rigveda x. 106, 5; AV. iii, 3. 15. Rigveda vii, 85, 6. 16. Rigveda iii, 1, 18; 25, 5; iv. 13, 1; v. 76, 4 etc. Av. vii, 17. 3. Vajasaneyi Samhita xxxiii, 72, etc. 17. Arrian, Indica, x, 2. 18. AV. 111, 12; IX. 3; Bloomfield 'Hymns of Aarthvavda, 343, etc. 19. Zimmer conjecturally identifies the Agnisala with the central room the Havirdhana with a place for keeping the grain, etc. (e. g. AV. iii 3, 4), the Patninama Sadana with the woman's apartments, and the Sadas with the subsidiary buildings.

242 The Structural Temples of Gujarat frequently in the sense of special building, 20 the references as to the existence of Puras and their fortification, the pillared halls and mansions, the several names like Sthuna, Stambha; Skambha, Viskambha of the free standing pillars and supports 21 and the Yupa, the sacrificial post and Mrnmayam Grham, the burial mounds 22 and the detailed references as to various articles of furniture, 23 all these record the advanced knowledge of architecture achieved during the Rgvedic period. 24 (b) Yajurveda Samhita's etc. (c. 3000 B. C.-1000 A. D.) 25 The Krsna Yajurveda contains numerous hymns relating to Yupa, 26 the prototype of the Indian pillar. The Sukla Yajurveda's description of the 'Smasana' (funeral mound) gives an idea of the prototype of the Indian stupas so popular in later art.27 The Sala Sukta (hymn) of Atharvaveda immensly describes the residential houses. It also contains many architectural terms like Vansa for beam and Sthuna (Sthanu) for post. This veda further refers to houses of varying shapes and sides, some being twosided, eight-sided and four-sided. (c) The Brahmanas Brahmanas (c. 4000 B. C.-1000 B. C ) 28 have elaborately discussed the various religious structures the Yupa, the Vedi and the Smasana. The word 'Silpa' and its traditional 20. Rigveda v. 32.5; vii 55, 6; 56. 16; 76, 2; IX 71, 4; 78.3. 21. Rigveda 59. 1; II 31, 12 IV 5. 1. 22. Rigveda VII. 89. 23 Rigveda VII 55.8. 24. For details vide Dr. P. K. Archarya: 'History of Architecture in India and Abroad' ch. II pp 54-62 and Dr. Bhatacharya. A study of Vastuvidya or canons of Indian Architecture' (1947) ch. 11 pp 11-23. 25. Chronology 26. K. Yaju. I, 3; Vedic Index, 3. 27. S. Yaju. ch. 35. 28 Chronology

Sources of Architectural Canons 243 knowledge occur in the Aitareya Brahmana ( Vedic Index 5. 27). Sacrifices (Yagnas) form the main topic of the Brahmanas, In Citi (sacrificial altar) the burnt-bricks were used. Further, the description occuring in Satapatha Brahmana indicates the influence of Non-Aryan architecture. The construction of the Smasana (Burial mound over the ashes or the bones of dead man) is described in detail in the Satapatha Brahmana (XIII. 8. 1. 4) which, supplemented by Rgvedic and Yajurvedic verses already referred to, gives us a clear idea of the earliest form of the Indian Stupa. The Aryan stupas were four-sided; the non-Aryans ones were round. Square Hindu stupas have been found in India. The Hindu stupa rested on earth, where as the Asura stupa was errected on a base. The mound was then enclosed by a stone which perhaps indicates the stone casing or the rails round the stupas. Pegs were fixed on the four sides, which might have given rise to the custom of errecting a pillar on each of the four cardinal points arround the Stupa. (d) Sutras (800 B. C.-400 B. C. ) 29 The Kalpa Sutras one of the Vedangas, afford the earliest Vastusastras. The Samkhayna Grhya Sutra (III, 2 ff.) and the Asvalayana Grhya Sutra (II, 7, 9) devote as many as three chapters each to canons of house building. The existence of the central post and the importance ascribed to it indicate that the earliest house of the Aryans was one with a pillar in centre, on which the stability of the house depended. In the Gobhila and Khadira Sutras, the principles of siteselection, the quadrangular and circular shape, the position of the doors etc. have been eleborately discussed. Correctness of foundation and proportionate measurements of the architecture are strictly adhered in Sulbha-sutras. Dr. P. K. Acharya rightly observes: "The construction of these altars, which required for the great 'Soma' sacrifice, seems to have been 29. Chronology were

244 The Structural Temples of Gujarat based on sound scintific principles and was probably the precursor of the temple which later became the chief feature of Hindu architecture." (e) Epics: The Ramayana (2 nd cent. A. D. )31 and the Mahabharata ( 4 th cent. B. C.-4 th cent. A. D.)82 both mirror a very advanced state of Indian architecture. Descriptions of towns, palaces, Sabhas, and forts simply abound. Experts in the Sthapatya ( architecture) were highly honoured; Visvakarma and Maya are repeatedly alluded as master-architects of Devas and Asuras. Techincal words like Sthapati, Vardhaki, Taksaka, and Sutradhara occur in the Ramayana. Houses and places had already been classfied with their appropriate technical names according to their different characterstics, e. g. the Chatussala, the Padma, the Svastika, the Vardhamana houses, and the Vimana (palace) called the Puspahvaya. All these names occur in later Sipla-Sastras. Forts were also divided into four classes, such as river-fort (Nadeya,), the hill fort (Parvatya), the forest-fort (Vanya) and the artificial fort (Krtrima ) ( Vl. 3 ) Fortification of towns and inner chambers of queens with ditches and ramparts adorned with Gopuras and Toranas are stereotyped description of the capital cities like Ayodhya, Kiskindha and Lanka; palaces or ostentatious buildings were known as Prasadas, Vimanas, Harmyas and Saudhas and Prasadas are described as Saptabhauma, Astabhauma, Anekabhauma and the like. These palaces were also crowned with domes or pinnacles (Sikhara,, Srnga. etc.). Over the tops of houses, besides the Sikharas and Srngas (pinnacles) were constructed the Candrasalas, Vitanakas and Valabhi's the technical members of houses are also mentioned. Decoration of houses with paintings and sculptures was also a current tradition. Palace-architecture has found an eloquent description in the Ramayana. 30. Dr. P. K. Acharya: 'History of Architecture in India and Abroad.' p. 63. 31. Winternitz. Meter History of Indian Literature Vol. I. p. 516. 32. Ibid. p. 475.

Sources of Architectural Canons 245 Religious edifices like sacrificial halls, sabhas, fire-altars and temples of Gods (devayatana) also found a place. The mention of numerous pillars inside the structure of Caitya hall suggests affinity with Buddhist Caityas of later times found at Karla and Ajanta. Similar cognate details abound in every page of these monumental poetic works couthed in poetic language full of similies and metaphors.33 Similar indentical profound descriptions of forts, towns, palaces, Sabha mandapas (assembly halls) are met in the greater epic, the Mahabharata. It contains short but comprehensive accounts of cities of Dvaraka (III-15), Indrprastha (I, 207, 30 ff), a floating city (III, 173, 3), Mithila (III, 207, 7) and others. In the Sabhaparva there are interesting descriptions of some assembly halls. Maya built an assembly hall for the Pandavas (Chapter I). A description is given also of the assembly halls. of Indra (chapter VII), of Yama (Chapter VIII), of Varuna (Chapter IX), of Kubera (Chapter X) and of Brahman (Chapter XI ). The Harivamsa which represents an appendix (Khila) of the Mahabharata contains specific references to temples. The words like Mandira, Devatayatana, Suralaya etc. have been used.³4 (f) The Manusmrti (200 B. C.- 100 A. D. )³ 5 The Manusmrti contains references to temples as abodes of Gods.36 (g) Buddhist literature-Jatakas & Pali canons and Jain literature (3 rd or 2 nd cent. B. C.) In the Jatakas, the architectural traditions appear to have been well-established. The science of architecture had already 33. Dr. Bhattacharya. 'A study of Vastu-vidya or Canons of Indian Architecture pp. 43-51. 34. Harivamsa, Visnu Parva, LVIII, 14; LIX, 33, 44. 35. Chronology 36. The words like Devagarika and Deva-nikarya (1.36) (taken by commentators as Deva-nivasa-sthana) have been used.

246 The Structural Temples of Gujarat been enunciated in the teachings of a number of sages, 37 and ancient authorities like Visvakarma. 38 Maya, Bhrgu and Agastya were considered early authorities contemporary even of the vedic and prevedic age. Technical words like 'Bhumi' and the technical designations of the Prasadas 39 and early tradition of Sala-houses 40 also occur. Royal residences like Prasada and Vimana were also there. The descriptions of underground tunnel and wood carving, wood painting and paintings on wall also occur. 41 The Introduction of stone-architecture is also recorded. The references like Pasada etha silamaya '42 Udukhala Pasanam '43, throne of yellow marble 44, Giridurga or hill-fort 4 5 and stone cutter (Pasanakottaka) and stone-pillar (Silathambam) 46 are clear indications of the existence of stone architecture. There is reference to crystal palaces 47 (Phatika Pasada-Sphatika Prasada). Not only that in one of the stories, 48 the Bodhisttava himself is said to have been a stone-cutter by birth. + In the Vinaya rules, we find that the Lord Buddha allowed his disciples to make use of stone not only in the basements of their halls, stairs, flooring and walls but also in the roofing of their houses.49 This is an interesting literary proof of the fact that stone buildings existed in the age prior to that of Asoka. Adoption to standard measurement seems to have been in vogue from the earliest times. The technical terms of vastu-measures like Kikku' (Kisku) and Vidathi (Vitasti) occur frequently in Jatakas. Different classes of palaces of varying 37. Jatakas Nos. 257 & 489 references to Vatthu Vijjacaryas. 38. J. Nos. 483, 489 etc. 39. J. Nos. 541, 558. 40. J. No. 489. 41. J. No. 546. 44. J. No. 519. 45. J. No. 516. 46. J. No. 476. 47. J. No. 378. 48. J. No. 479. 42. J. No. 545. 43. J. No. 514. 49. Cullavagga Vedic Index 3. 11.

Sources of Architectural Canons 247 shapes, with abudant application of pillars (Sahasthamba Pasada), 50 and with many pinnacles and storeys, 51 carved wooden rafters ( Gopansiya ); 52 watch-towers with quarters for watchmen (Attalaka ); 53 pillars of various shapes ( AtthanisaAstasra ); 54 and doors, windows including latticed ones with perforated screens; lintels, stairs and cornices etc. have all found eloquent mention. The description of towns of Jatakas tally very much to those found in epics.55 The Mahavagga and the Cullavagga are two Pali texts which provide an abundant information on the most flourishing architectural condition of the day. At places it appears as if the Lord Buddha is giving sermons on the science of Architecture itself. In Cullavagga, 56 he appears to enjoin upon his devotees the supervision of building-construction as one of the duties of the Samgha. In Mahavagga 57 and also in Cullvagga 58 the blessed one is stated to have said, "I allow you, oh, Bhikkus, abodes of five Kinds-Vihara, Ardhayoga (Addayoga), Prasada, Harmya and Guha. This is the earliest classification of buildings. very much elaborated in later Silpa-texts. Masonary and material alongwith component parts of building, residential or devotional, are all described. The description of three-fold windows-Vedika-vatayan, Jalavatayan, Salaka-vatayan, the stairs and various kinds of plasters epitonize the flourishing state of architecture of the time. Dr. Bhattacharya has rightly observed, "The many-storeyed dwellings, the underground chambers and the stone roofs indicate the developed engineering skill of the Indians. The painted chambers, the latticed windows and stairbalustrades attest to their ascetic culture. The drains, the dams and the baths, described by Rhys Davids, are further proof of the developed state of Indian architecture. 59 50. J. No. 553. 51. J. No. 541. 52. J. No. 396. 53. J. Nos. 534 & 458. 58. Cull. Vedic Index 1, 2. 54. J. Nos. 541 & S 43. 55. J. No. 518. 56. Cull Vedic Index 17, 1. 57. Maha. I, 30, 4. 59. Dr. Bhattacharya. 'A study of Vastu-vidya or Canons of Indian Architecture'. p. 69.

248 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Jain Literature In early jain literature the common word used for temple * Ceiya '60 (Caitya). The temple is also designated as * Devakula ³,61 Jakhkhayatana 62 (Yaksayatana), Jinasadma 6 3 was ( Jinalaya), Vihara 64 etc. Jain works contain references to well known Caityas situated in the pleasure-gardens in the vicinity of several towns and cities, such as the Kotshaka Caitya at Sravasti,65 the Gunasila or Gunatilaka Caitya at Rajagraha, 66 the Candravatarana Caitya at Kausambi, 67 the Purnabhadra Caitya at Campa, 68 the Kamamaharnava Caitya at Varanasi (Benaras),69 the Manibhadra Caitya at Mithila,70 the Bhandiravedamsiya Caitya at Mathura 71 etc. and so on. 60. The word is also spelt as 'Ceia' Cetiya, etc. The word originally denoting a heap or monument generally stood for an object of worship, applied to an image in course of time (Acaranga II, 80; Abhayadeva, Aupapatika tika p. 101; Prasnavyakrna Vrutti, p. 29; Dharmasagar Kalpa Kirnavali p. 37); later on its use extended to the temple as well (Abhayadeva, Bhagavatisutra tika p. 7; "Caiye'ti Citerlepyadi Cayatasya bhava; Karma Va iti Caityam; Samigna Sabdatvad devabimbam, tada asryatvat tadgrhamapi Caityam". (Malayagiri; Suryapragnapti tika 1 p. 2). 61. Acaranga II, 80. 62 Anuyogadvara, 1. 6 63-64. Hemacandra, Abhidhana Cintamani', p. 396. 65. Sudharmswami, ' Bhagavati Sutra' 386, 430. 66. lbid. 3. 67. Ibid. 441. 68. lbid. 386. 69. lbid. 550. 70 Jambudvipapragnapti. 1; Suryapragnapti, 1. 71. Avasyaka cuni. 530.

Sources of Architectural Canons 249 According to the common usage in canonical works, there is a stereotyped Varnaka (description) on the Caitya, which is repeated adverbatum in the different canonical works. The 'Varanka' contains a number of attributes of the Caityas, some of which refer to certain component parts of the temple, such as Chatta, Vedica, Torana, Stambha, Salabhanjika, Ihamrga, Vyala, Kalasa etc.72 The description is mainly literary and contains no hint about the definite form of the temple. The description (Varnaka) of the Vimana, though applying to super-human palatial buildings (or even worlds) constructed in the form of the Vimana, impliedly presents impliedly presents a pictureous idea of the architectural form of the monumental Vimana of the human world. As the main body of the temple is constructed in the form of a Vimana, the attributes given in the description of a Vimana contain hints about many component parts of the temple as well. The Vimana was supported on many hundred pillars and adorned with three beautiful stair-cases in the three directions. There were several arches supporting superstructure. The floor was decked with various sorts of gems. The audiance hall propped up by many hundreds of pillars decked with dolls and beautifully arranged arches, and with fine altars that were elevated and very wellbuilt. The floor of the mandapa was properly demarcated and studded with various gems. Its walls and entrances were highly decorated.73 The Nirvanakalika' by Padaliptacarya mainly deals with the religious rites pertaining to the construction of a temple, the installation of its important components and the construction of an image. But the work affords little information about the architectural form of the temple. Among the canonical works on Indian architecture 'SiriVatthusara-payaranam (Vastu-Sara-prakarna), by Thakkar Feru, 72. Vide: Rayapassaniya 2; Bhagavatisutram, 386. 73. For the complete text of the Varnaka vide Rayapassaniya. 15.

250 The Structural Temples of Gujarat is especially devoted to the forms of Jain deities and the temples enshrining them.74 (h) Arthasastra: (300 B. C.-100 B. C. )15 The authorship of this text is ascribed to the famous Kautilya, the Prime-minister of Chandragupta Maurya. This is the first datable text on civil architecture. It contains the scientific definition of Vastu 6 which includes buildings and their engineering both. Houses (or the sites of houses), pleasure-gardens (Aramas), Setubandhas ( embankments and bridges) and lakes etc. are called Vastu. The technical words like Vastuhrdaya, Navabhanga the central plot of nine plot sites. etc. and the different kinds of roads with their appropriate names are the proofs of existence of developed science of architecture in that time. Durga-Nivesa 77 is a most systematic presentation of royal palaces and forts. As regards the dedication of temples in the centre of the city, it remarks that in the Kosthakalayas, the Vastudevatas should also be set up according to their alloted positions. This gives us to conclude that Pada-vinyas, a very developed canon of town planning, was a stereotyped canon in Kautilya's age. Road-planning, planning of fort and palaces along with folk-planning and that connected with professions were all well established. The word 'Pratoli' occurs for the first time here. Popular residential houses like Sala-buildings and religious types like Caitya and Stupas are also delineated upon. But the most copious descriptions and the presentations thereof pertain to forts and the palace-architecture.78 Thus the early works of pre-Christen era like Hymns, Sutras, Jatakas, Epics Arthasastra 74. For detail vide the description of the text given below. 75 Chro Kane. 76. Kaultiya's Arth. Book. III, Chap. 8. 77. Ibid, Book II. Ch. 4. 78. For detail refer Dr. Bhattacharya. 'A study of Vastuvidya or Canons of Indian Architecture.' Ch. IX.

Sources of Architectural Canons 251 presents the architectural subjects viz., Vastu, Bhupariksa and Bhumisamgraha (Selection of site and examination of soils), Dvaras and Stambhas (position of doors and pillars), Padavinyasa 路 Siteplans), Ayadinirnaya (Astrological consideration), structures and component parts of houses, palaces and temples, Sankusthapana (calculation of cardinal points) and Hastalaksana ( units of measurements) either in crude or developed forms, which in later works like Puranas, Agamas and Silpa texts have been found elaborately treated. (i) PURANAS. The Puranas contain some casual references to architecture, but some of them devote several adhyayas to architecture, sculpture and other fine arts and give a systematic and eleborate treatment of the subject. The Purunas seem to have been composed at different times and their period can be fixed only approximately. The following Puranas give a special treatment to the subject. The Matsya Purana* (300 A. D.-600 A. D.)79 contains a special section on architecture styled 'Vastuprakarana' which consists of eight comprehensive adhyayas 80 (chapters) dealing with the different aspects of architecture and sculpture in detail. 81 In one of these chapters (ch. CCLII) accounts * Published in Anandasram Sanskrit series no. 54 and Trans. into English in Sacred Books of Hindus (Panini office, Allahabad ). Vol. 17. 79. Chro-Kane, Some portion of the Purana is as old as 3 rd Cent. A. (D., D. K. Shastri, 'Purana Vivecan' p. 180.) 80. Matsy Purana chapters CCLII, CCLV, CCLVII, CCLVIII, CCLXII, CCLXIII, CCLXIX and CCLXX. 81. Brhat Samhita of Varahmihira approximately belongs to the period of Matsy Purana The subject of architecture treated by it displays some affinity with that of Matsy Purana

252 The Structural Temples of Gujarat (ancient are given of the eighteen Vastusastropadasakas. preceptors of the science of architecture).82 In the chapter entitled stambha-mananirnaya (ch. CCLV) five fold columns are described. Prasadalaksana (ch. CCLXII) and Mandapalaksana (Ch. CLXX) constitute the details of temple-architecture. plans, measures, storeys, cupolas, etc. Building materials under Darvaharana (Ch. CCLVII) are also discussed. The remainig three chapters (Chapts. CCLVIII, CCLXII & 82. (1) Bhrgu (2) Atri (3) Vasistha (4) Visvakarma (5) Maya (6) Narada (7) Nagnajit (8) Visalksa (9) Indra (10) Brhama (11) Svamikartika (12) Nandisvara (13) Saunaka (14) Garga (15) Srikrisna (16) Anirudha (17) Sukra (18) Brhaspati (Ch. CCLVII, Vo, 1-3) Some of these are celebrated authors of science of Architecture. But the Matsya Puaana does not mention the names of the works of these authors. The Agnipurana gives a list of 25 traditional works on Silpa. They are entitled as follows :- (1) Panca-ratra (2) Sapta-ratra (3) Haya-sirsa Tantra (4) TrailokyaMohan Tantra (5) Vaibhava Tantra (6) Pauskara Tantra (7) Naradiya Tantra (8) Sandilya Tantra (9) Vaisvaka Tantra (10) Saunak Tantra (11) Jnana-Sagara of Vasistha Tantra (12) Prahlad Tantra (13) Gargya Tantra (14) Galva-Tantra (15) Svayambhu Tantra (16) Kapila Tantra (17) Tarksa Tantra (18) Narayaniya Tantra (19) Atreya Tantra (20) Narasinha Tantra (21) Ananda Tantra (22) Aruna Tantra (23) Baudhayan Tantra (24) Arsa Tantra (25) Tantra spoken to Visva. (Ch. XXXIX vv 1路5]). Many of these works are evidently named after their authors. The names of some of these authors occur among the names of the eighteen celebrated authors mentioned in the Matsya Purana (e. g. Nardiya, Saunaka, Gargya, Atreya etc.) Most of these traditional works on Silpa are not in existence at present. But it is certain that many of these must have served as sources to many later Silpa writers, as nearly all the works mainly deal with the subject of temple building (Mandiranirmana ), imagemaking and the rite of image consecretion (Pratima vidhana and Pratistha Vidhi ).

Sources of Architectural Canons 253 CCLXIII) are devoted to sculpture under the headings of Navatalalaksana '(i. e. proportionate measurement of an image,)' Linga-laksana and 'Pithikalaksana.' It describes twenty varieties of temples under three heads. The Vayu Purana* (300 A. D.-600 A. D.)83 It has a single chapter (Pt. 1 Ch. XXXIX) about the construction of temples on mountains. The Brhmanda-Purana* (300 A. D.-600 A. D. 184 likewise treats the construction of temples and other buildings in one chapter (Ch. VII ) Visnudharmottara Purana* ( 6 th cent. A. D. )85 This Purana forming an appendix of the great Visnu Purana is a store-house on the arts of architecture, sculpture and painting. It is divided into three Khandas, of which the third Khanda or part is a unique contribution on painting. It also imparts instruction to sculptors making images of Gods and to architects constructing temples. The Chapters LXXXVI-VIII, of this part give a geneological account about a hundred temples, * Bombay edition. 83. Chro Kane. Parjitar ascribes 1 st. cent. A. D. to this Purana. * Bombay edition. 84. The said Purana, according to some scholars, is a detached portion of the Vayupurana and hence is placed with the Vayu PuranaParjitar, also Shastri D. K. Purana Vivecana p. 174. * Bombay edition (Vyankatesvara Press) 85. Shastri D. K. 'Purana Vivecana' P. 188. The age of the portion i. e. Khanda III, of this Purana ascertained by Dr. (Miss) Priyabala Shah is between the first or rather second half of the 5 th cent. A. D. and the first half of the 7 th cent. A. D. i. e. circa 450 and 650 A. D. (Dr. Priyabala Shah 'Visnudharmottara Purana G. O. S. No. CXXX [1958], Introduction p, XXVI) But as the said Purana forms an appendix to Visnu Purana, which is dated 6 th Cent. A. D. it may also be ascribed to 6 th cent. A. D.

254 The Structural Temples of Gujarat a detailed notice of which has been taken by the learned author of 'Hindu temple" Dr. Stella Kramrisch. single The Linga-Purana* (9 th Cent. A. D. )86 has chapter ILVIII on sacrificial pits, temples and the installation of deities. The Agni Purana* (9 th-10 th Cent. A. D. )89 The Agni Purana, otherwise known as Agneya, has dilated the subject of architecture and sculpture at greater length. As seen above it submits the list of twenty-five authorative works on Silpa and Vastu-Vidya (Ch. XXXIX VV. 1-5). In the purana there are seventeen chapters 90 devoted to the topics of Vastu-sastra. Out of these only three chapters dealing with Nagaradi Vastu ( Ch. CVI), Prasada-Laksana-Kathana (Ch. XLII) and Prasada-Laksana (Ch. CIV) are important from the view point of the study of the temple architecture. It describes fourty-five varieties of temples under five heads. The remaining thirteen chapters (i. e. Chapts. XLIII-XLVI; XLIX-LV; LX, LXII & CV) deal with iconography and sculpture, further there is a good deal of affinity between the the Agni and Hayasirsa-pancaratra³ one of the traditional Tantra works Bombay edition. * 86. D. K. Shastri places this Purana contomporeous to Bhagavata which according to him composed during 9 th Cent. A. D.-(Purana -Vivecana pp. 207-209.) * Agni Purana Edited by Rajendra Mitra (Bibliotheca Indica) also English prose Transl. by Manmathanatha Dutt, Cal. 1903, Ch. XXXIX, and Agni Purana Bombay edition. 89. Shastri D. K. Purana Viveeana p. 216, 90. Ag, P. chapts. XXXIX, XLII, XLV, XLIX,--LV LX LXII, CIV-CVI 91. The text Hayasirsapancaratra, in Ms. form, is in the library of the Varendra Research Society, Rajshahi (East Bengal). Chapter I-XIV (Vol. 1) were published in 1952. A. D.; Chapt. XV-XLIV (Vol II) published in 1956. Dr. Stella Kramarisch has given its chapter XIII Prasada Laksana in Hindu temple Vol. II pp 429 ff. From the text it Seems that the text pertains to the Dravidian school of temple architecture.

Sources of Architectural Canons 255 enumerated by the Agni Purana it self. The chapters on Vastuvidya dealt with by the Garuda Purana are identical with those of the Agni-Purana. This will lead to belive, as Dr. Bhattacharya has conjectured, that the fountain head of both these puranas might be Hayasirasa-Pancaratra. The Skanda Purana* (9 th-10 th Cent. A. D )92 It is also known as Kumara-Purana. It devotes three chapters to the subject of Vastu and Silpa. Its expatiation on the laying of a large city are of particular interest. Golden hall, chariots and Kalayana mandapa form the principal subjects of the other two chapters. In a summary manner this purana also treats the subject of painting. The Garuda Purana* ( 10 th-11 th Cent. A. D. )93 It has two chapters (XLVI-XLVII) on architecture and two (XLV-XLVIII) on sculpture. These chapters as stated above, are identical with those of Agni Purana. But its chief contribution is the discussion of Salagrama images, given in Salagrama-murti-laksana (XLV ). The Bhavisya Purana* (11 th cent. A. D. ) 94 This Purana has four chapters, three (XII, CXXXI-CXXXII) being devoted to sculpture and one (ch. CXXX) to the temple architecture ( Prasada-laksana-varnana ), in which it describes like Matsya-Purana, twenty varieties of temples under three heads. * Bombay edition. 92. Vaidya C. V. 'History of Mediaeval Hindu India' Vol. II. pp. 39-42. *Bombay edition ' ' 93 Shastri D. K Purana Vivecana' p. 201 * Bombay edition. 94. Shastri D. K. ' Purana Vivecana' p. 231.

256 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The Nardiya Purana* (12 th Cent A. D.) 9 8 treats only the construction of temples, reservoirs, wells and tanks in one chapter (Part I, ch. XIII.) Other Uppuranas like the Brahmavaivarta, the Vamana, the Varaha, the Harivamsa, the Devibhagavata, the Kalki, the Siva and the Samba puranas have briefly touched the subject matter of architecture and sculpture, but no specific details about temple architecture are found in these works. (j) AGAMAS. The Agamas and the Tantras deal with mystical worship of Siva and Sakti, Agama contribution to Silpa Sastra is more extensive and technical than that of the Puranas. Some of the Agamas to all intents and purposes are but architectural treatises. For instance Kamikagama, out of its total seventy-five chapters, devotes sixty chapters to architecture and sculpture. Dr. Acharya remarks: "But, unlike the Puranas there is in the Kamikagama a discussion of architectural matters under some very highly technical classifications, such as the styles, Nagara, Dravida and Vesara: Shapes, masculine, faminine, neutar; Suddha, Misra and Sankirna, depending respectively on a single material, mixture of two materials, and the amalgamation of many materials; Sauchita, Asauchita, Apasauchita otherwise known as Sthanaka, Asana and Sayana, which in case of temples depend on the erect, sitting and reclining postures of the image. Another very technical matter referred to is Ayadi formulas, very important in selecting the right proportions. 96 Out of the 28 Maha-Agamas, the five Agamas viz. Amsumadabhedagama, Kamikagama, Karanagama, Vaikhanasagama and Suprebhedagama have special refrence to architecture and cognate arts. * Bombay Edition. 95. Shastri D. K. 'Purana Vivecana' p. 233. 96. Dr. P. K. Acharya: 'Hindu Architecture in India & Abroad' (Mansara series Vol. Vedic Index) Ch. III p. 86.

Sources of Architectural Canons (k) Tantras, 97 257 The twenty-five Tantras as referred to, in the Agni Purana are already enlisted in the foregoing pages. These notable works on Trantra culture are also intimately associated with religious architecture, the construction of temples and the making of images, and allied sculptures. (1) Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira.* Brhatsamhita, a datable work i. e. of the Gupta period (6 th century A. D.) even though an astronomical treatise deals also with the subject of the science of architecture.98 Its treatment of subject is methodical, succinct and scientific. Its contribution, therefore, to the evolution and development of Indian architecture is simply superb. It has five chapters devoted to: both architecture and sculpture. The preliminary subjets are describted in the opening chapter 'Vastuvidya' (LII). It opens with a definition of the science of architecture, and the author goes on to describe briefly but succinctly and to the point, the suitable building sites, testing of soil, general plan, comparative measures of storeys and doors, and carvings thereon, and other important parts of a building. Then follows the chapter (LV) on Prasada Laksana, in which the temples are described under the same twenty types as in the Mastya and Bhavisya Puranas, the names and details being identical. Under the head of 'Vajra-lepa' (Ch. LV 1) the preparation of cement is discussed. One whole chapter (LXXVIII) is devoted to the construction of the 97. It should be noted that most of the Agamas and Tantras refer. to Dravidian school of architecture. * Brht. Sam. pt. || (1897). Viziangram Sanskrit series (Sudhakar Dwivedi ) Vol. X, 98. Matsya Purana approximately belongs to the period of Brhatsamihita. As are noted above the subject matter of architecture treated by both the works have some common affinities.

258 The Structural Temples of Gujarat necessary articles of house-furniture such as bed-steads, couches and seats. And in the chapter of Pratima Laksna (LVII) the details of images are described in a most scientific manner which is missing in other ancient literature. From the commentary of Bhattotpala on Brhatsamhita it seems that Varahamihira has distinct knowledge of the works on architecture written by Brhaspati, Kasyapa, Garga, Maya, Visvakarma, Sukra, Parasara, and Manu. Varahamihira, himself in his treatise avowedly refers to the works of old masters and truly admits that his was but a brief account of the treatises by master-architects like Maya, Visvakarma, Garga and Manu. (Ch. LV. vv. 29,31). (m) Pratistha Class of Work There are several standard manuals on Pratistha. Among them Isanasivagurudeva-Paddhati, Haribhaktivilasa and Hemadris Caturvargacintamani are very important. These works not only mirror the flourishing condition of Indian architecture of the time, but also lay down the rules relating to temple architecture and Iconography. (n) Miscellaneous Works Among these works, Niti-works like 'Sukras Niti-Sara,'" ⁹ poetical works like Banas Kadambari and Harsacarita, 100 Kalhanas Rajatarangini, Hamacandracaryas Sanskrit Dvyasraya and dramas like Sudrakas Mrcchakatika and Rajesakhara's Viddhasalabhanjika 101 are very valuable to reconstruct the history of India architecture. The astrologial and astronomical treatises frequently refer to architectural topics, especially those bearing upon auspicious times. In a pamphlet of this class twenty-one things are stated to be observed in connection with building a house or 99. Sukraniti : Ch. IV Sec. 4. 100. Harsacarita, pp. 103, 137, 153, 176. 101. In MS. form. Gov. Ori, Libra, Madras. 84 (Auf. Cat. Vol. II. p. 135)

Sources of Architectural Canons 259 a temple.102 The works like Surya-Siddhanta, 103 the Sidhanta- Siromani 104 and the Lilavati 105 deal exhaustively with a very technical matter bearing upon upon architecture,, namely, the description of gnomons (Sanku) which were used for finding out cardinal points. The subject is architecturally very important in as much as it refers to the oriention of buildings.