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CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION Architecture, being one of the hall-marks of civilization, must have began with the rise of civilization. 'It is the matrix of civilization." Architecture has been described as 'the art of organizing space'. 2 That in ancient India architecture reached a high degree of development nearly 5,000 years ago is amply demonstrated by the excavated ruins of the Indus Valley civilization. Among the ruins the archaeologists have found well-planned towns with good thoroughfares, well-constructed public baths and a good drainage system. A large number of the buildings were of brick with ground storeys in wood. The religious motive power for silpa appeared yet to be fully explained during the Indus Valley however a keen interest was mainly from the time of Asoka. If the Indian silpis had not obtained religion as the vehicle of Indian silpa then the marvellous development of Indian art would have perhaps different.³ Architecture is both a science and an art. Therefore the business of the architecture is not only to lay down the norms for the guidance of architectural creations but also to evolve these creations in such a manner as to give an aesthetic experience, the apperception of which makes an individual forget himself and experience such a blissful state as to plunge himself into another world - the world of beauty.4

2 Before going into the specific historical aspect of architecture we would like to make certain general comments on the understanding of the word silpa in relation to architecture and art. 'The term silpa means an art, fine or mechanical' It covers some sixty-four such arts But here silpa- sastra is used in the sense of vastusastra. The literal rendering of vastusastra would be 'science of architecture', but a complete vastusastra deals with more than what is generally understood by architecture. In the vastusastra the term architecture is taken in its broadest sense and implies what is built or constructed Thus in the first place it denotes all kinds of buildings - religious and residential Secondly, it covers townplanning, layout garden, constructing market places, gateways, building enclosure walls railings and bathing ghats. Architecture also includes sculpture and deals with the idols of deities, statues of great personages, images of animals and bird. 5 In the Vedic literature the earliest references to the vestiges of Indian architecture we get in Satapata Brahmana and Aitareya Brahmana where in octagonal form of yupas or sacrificial stakes have been explained as Vajra (eight sided). The Sankhayana Grhya Sutra speaks of the houses built in accordance with the suitability of the ritualistic performances These rituals and the symbolism attached to the various forms of architecture indubitably point to the remotest antiquity of their origin. The rituals connected with the architecture are to be found in

3 the Grhya Sutras, the Puranas and the Tantras, the vastusastras and its later compilations till the fifteenth century AD. In fact the Asvalayana (III. 3-7), the Khadira (Iv. 2.6-13), the Gobhila (IV. 7) and the Apastamba (VII. 17) Grhya Sutras lay down elaborate rules for selecting the ground, and the Hiranyakesi Grhya Sutra (1.8.17-29) cites the process for propitiating the ground.³ The word vastu was literally interpreted as 'Vasanti praninah yatra', (i.e.) a place where living beings reside. Later it came to include not only the site but also the dwelling built upon it and later still bedsteads, thrones, chariots, images, paintings etc. The Rigveda hymn invokes vastopati as the special deity supposed to preside over building sites. It appears that the earliest building in India was made after the model of a tree. This is 9 curiously supported by an account in the Puranas. This earliest connection of primitive dwellings with tree all the more probable as we find that the vegetable kingdom was the first to be utilised for all necessary materials of house building. The central post was beyond doubt the trunk of the tree. Again, the classification of the pillars, in later times into the Visnu Kanda (pillars with eight faces), Brahmakanda (pillar with four faces) Rudrakanda (round pillar) the like points to the trunk of the tree (called 10 Kanda) being synonymous with the shaft of the pillar. The door jambs were called the sakhas (the branches) from the use of the branches of trees in their construction. The lintel of the door was similar, known as

4 Udumbara in Sanskrit, Urummara has been used in Pali, evidently form the use of the fig wood in making these pieces. All these facts seem to indicate that wood formed the usual material for the construction of buildings in the initial stages. The earliest references in Jatakas, the Arthasastra and the Ramayana also show that buildings were generally made of wood. That the wooden architecture prevailed in India for a long time. John Marshall remarks that 'these materials left their character 11 deeply and permanently impressed on Indian Architecture'. The Satapatha Brahmana 12 again, while laying down the rules for the construction of a Smasana, relates some interesting legends regarding their shape and some other features. Thus the ancient rites and some of the customs suggest to us a probable origin of Indian architecture. The reference to the central post, the placing of acquatic vegetable in the pill for such posts all go to suggest the character of the primitive building scheme of India. The development was one 'from the log cabin to the white house', from the humble cottage of leaves to ostentatious temples and palaces." THE TERM PURANA The term purana usually occurs in close associated with itihasa in ancient 14 Sanskrit literature. Originally, the word purana seems to have been understood in the sense of an 'old legend' (puranam akhyanam); but it is variously explained by different Puranas. Vayu Purana 15 says that it is

嘟� 16 called purana because it lives in the past or it breathes ancient times. (yasmat pura hyanatidam puranam tena hi smrtam). The Padma Purana¹ offers the following explanation (puraparamparam vashti puranam tena tata smrtam). The Matsya Purana 7 describes the puranas as 'the records of ancient events.' The Brahmanda Purana says that a purana describes what happened in the past. THE ORIGIN OF THE PURANAS The purana as a branch of learning or vidya has been mentioned as 18 originated from Brahma, even before the Vedas issued forth from his mouths. In fact, even the extant Puranas preserve in them certain ancient traditions that have their roots in the pre-vedic times. Then again, the Vedas were not accessible to the general masses of the Indian society on account of the unique sanctity attached to them. But such was not the case with the Puranas, which were meant not only for the learned scholars of the upper class of Indian society, but also for the common man, for whom they were specially composed, and then redacted several times in order to make them up-to-date according to the society, so that they may serve as the permanent religious and cultural guides for the society in general. On account of the divine origin ascribed to the Puranas as mentioned above, 19 the Puranas came to acquire the status of the Veda. Even in the Brahmanas the status of the Puranas was recognised. Both

6 the Satapatha-Brahmana and the Gopatha-Bahmana have used the epithet 'veda' for the purana. 20 The purana was regarded as the fifth Veda. 21 The study of the Puranas was held to be more important even 22 than the study of the Vedas, Vedangas and the Upanisads.2 The Puranas became the Vedas of the laity and they were enjoined to be read and listened to by all the four varnas of the Hindu society. The sudras who were forbidden to study the Vedas were compensated by allowing them access to purana and the itihasa,³ respectively called also the purana veda and the itihasa veda. 24 26 23 The Puranas are unanimous in their view that Vyasa made the Puranasamhita 25 and instructed his pupil Lomaharsana when he entrusted the work of spreading it. This is considered to have been at a time when the Vedas were divided into four. Vedavyas who had the knowledge of the Puranas is said to have composed the Puranasamhita based on the akhyana, upakhyana and gatha etc; while the akhyana is the narration about an incident which the speaker himself has witnessed, the upakhyana is that which was heard from somebody and retold. Gathas are the metrical quotations found in Vedas and Brahmanas. :27 According to the definition of the grammarian Panini² the word purana is that which is existing from long time past (purabhavam). It therefore appears that originally the term purana signified an ancient tale or narrative. Such tales existed prior to Vedas. This seems to be the

7 meaning of such statement as: puranam sarvasastranam prathamam brahmana smrtam. 28 Statements about Puranas are found even in the Brahmanas, itihasa and Narasamsigatha in the Atharvaveda 29 in Brahmanas 30 and in the Taittiriya Aranyaka. 31 By the time of the Chandogya Upanisad they were accorded the status of 'the fifth veda' and formed a part of the syllabus of Vedic studies. 32 From all these statements it can be gathered that Purana have a hoary past. Amarasimha, the author of Amarakasa 33 describes a purana as: sargasca pratisargasca vamso manvantaranica | vamsanucaritam caiva puranam pancalaksanam || According to this definition, purana is one which describes five topics: sarga (creation of the universe); pratisarga (recreation after destruction of the world); vamsa (dynasties of gods, the sun and the moon and the patriarchs); manvantara (the great periods of time with Manusmrti as the primal ancestor); vamsanucarita (the history of the dynasties both the solar and the lunar). THE DATE OF COMPOSITION OF THE PURANAS The Puranic literature grew into the eighteen Mahapuranas with an extent of four lakhs of slokas and supplemented later on by the eighteen upapuranas, local puranas and a large number of mahatmyas and vratakathas as all assigned to one or the other of the main puranas.

8 According to P.V. Kane, 34 the compilation of the extant Puranas was completed by the ninth century AD and the Upapuranas began to be completed from about the seventh or eighth century AD, and their number went on increasing till about the thirteenth century or even later. But even after that additions or interpolations continued to be made and thus the total contents of the Puranas has further swelled to more than four lakhs of slokas. 35 By virtue of these changes and by studying and investigating the appreciably significant material preserved in the various Puranas, mixed up with vedic lore. The Puranas are considered even more important than the sruti on account of their contribution to Indian society, not only in India but also in the other adjoining countries of Greater India. The eighteen Mahapuranas are somewhat like a set of eighteen volumes of an encyclopaedia of ancient brahmanical orthodoxy. They comprise a large number of subjects mapping out the complete canvas of life and society of their times, which attached the charm and interest of average person of ancient India. Besides synthesizing the Vedic lore, historical traditions and religious beliefs the Puranas afford us for greater insight into all aspects and phases of Hinduism 36 including even so many technical disciplines requiring specialized training and study. In their encyclopaedic nature with vedic metaphysics, mythology and cosmogony; they also comprehended the cultural history, chronology, genealogy,

9 polity, sociology, economy, topography, geography, medicine, astronomy, astrology, mathematics, art, architecture, sculpture and painting. 37 Before presenting a detailed study of specific topics on architecture covered in the Puranas we would give a brief introduction to each purana chronologically. MATSYA PURANA Well-modelled on the guidelines of traditional definition of a purana and similar to some other Mahapuranas, the Matsya Purana is also a kaleidoscope illustrating various aspects of Indian culture and civilization. It consists of 290 chapters 38 dealing with various subjects in an encyclopaedic manner. Besides the five original topics of Puranas, namely sarga, pratisarga, vamsa, manvantaras and vamsanucarita, Matsya also includes chapters on varnasramadharma, vratas, sadacara, rajadharma, sradha, tirthas, danas, prayascitta, devapujana, diksa, pratistha, vastuvidya and prasadalaksana. The pratistha and vastuvidya, either secular or sacred, were being incorporated in many religious scriptures from the time of Brhatsamhita. 39 Though the source of the architectural material of Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira is still not specified, the author of this astronomical work himself 40 acknowledges that this matter is indebted to his preceptors like Garga and Manusmrti 4 In the same tradition, most probably, Matsya Purana also borrowed the material from earlier sources. The Matsya Purana is one of the three oldest Puranas, the two others being, Brahmanda and Vayu. 41 F.E. Pargiter places Matsya Purana

10 (particularly the beginning of its composition) in the latter part of the second century AD, 42 while RC Hazra ascribes its first compilation to the last quarter of the third or the first quarter of the fourth century AD 43 P.V. Kane opines that Matsya Purana cannot be later than the sixth century A.D.44 Thus we can conclude that the compilation of Matsya Purana started in the Gupta period Hence the original chapters particularly dealing with the pancalaksana portion may be dated from the Gupta period, 1.e. AD 320-550. But as the upabrmhana continued up to the formation of the extant shape, it assimilated variegated subjects from the succeeding periods of history, at least up to AD 1100.45 That the purana was revised frequently is explicitly accepted in chapter 53 itself. 46 As far as the architectural material of the Matsya Purana is concerned it was, again not written during a short span or at a certain point of time It has at least two stages neither of which, most probably, dates from the Gupta period as some scholars believe Though a considerable part of the extant Matsya Purana was written in the Gupta period, it is also quite clear that a lot of details were interpolated in later period. However, if the comprehensive description of a king named. Pramati surprisingly tallies with that of Chandra Gupta II Vikramaditya of the Gupta dynasty, it cannot be inferred that the architectural details also belong to the Gupta age. It represents an advanced stage of temple architecture quite in contrast with that of the early Gupta period, which was the initial stage of Indian temple architecture Temples of this period exhibited a simple plan, lucid diction and restrained decoration 48 47 Thus,

11 Matsya Purana deals with the temple architecture dating from later than the Gupta age, and earlier than AD 1100, the approximate date of its last revision. It seems that chapters on vastuvidya were written in the early medieval period (c. ninth-tenth century AD). Several scholars have corrected and edited the Matsya Purana It was first edited and published by Sri Jivanand Vidyasagar Bhattacharya from Calcutta in the year 1876. It was reprinted from the edition of Khemraj Shri Krishandass, Venkateshwar Press by Pushpendra Sharma from New Delhi in year 1984. The Matsya Purana: A study is edited by V.R.R. Dikshitar from Madras in 1935. Another edition of it is by V. S. Agrawala published from Varanasi in 1963. Matsya Purana was translated in English by various Oriental scholars in 1972. Its, Hindi translation was made by Sri Ram Sharma Acharya in 1971-72. We have made the frequent use of the English translation by J.D. Akhtar and V.S. Agrawala. Its Sanskrit edition by Pushpendra Sharma and Hindi translation of Sri Ram Sarma have also been used. GARUDA PURANA The GP was first revealed by Visnu to Garuda and, hence its such a name. Its interest in the usual Puranic topics is rather secondary. It is concerned more with the Vaisnavite rituals, vratas, prayascittas and mahatmyas. Visnu, Siva, Durga, Surya and Ganesa are the five gods recommended for worship in it. Imitating the Agni Purana, it summarizes the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, Harivamsa and has also sections on

cosmography, astronomy, samudrikasastra, medicine, 12 grammar, ratnapriksa, niti and dharmasastra, etc. 49 The GP is also named often the huge bird, Garuda, the son of Kasyapa or Tarksa (after whom it has the name Tarksya Purana) and Vinata (therefore named as Vainateya by Vayu). 50 The GP has three Kandas: acara or karmakanda, pretakanda and brahmakanda. Out of these the second is the real GP. These three Kandas are independent. Pretakanda is the chief and early parts of the GP. It is probable that the acarakanda is added afterwards by about ninth. century AD. Brahmakanda is still later as it has the influence of the Bhagavata Purana, still it is not later than the tenth century AD. Sternbuch has conclusively proved that 390 verses pertaining to law and politics collected in the chapters from 108 to 115 of this Purana by the name Nitisara or Brhaspati Samhita have a close similarity with that of the Canakyanitisastra. It was translated by a Tibetan translator Rin-Chen bzan-po in the tenth century AD. So the date of this work would fall in the eight or ninth century AD. The essence of this work is to be found in the Brhaspati Samhita of the GP, so the date of this work may be ascribed to the ninth century AD. Alberuni has referred to it by name, and Bhoja has cited many slokas from the work. So its lower limit can be fixed in the tenth century AD. The GP cannot be earlier than about the middle of the ninth century AD. It is highly probable that the extant GP was compiled between AD 850-1000.

13 The GP has come down to us in different editions: an early edition was published at Calcutta in 1890 by Jivananda. There are about 8000 stanzas in this edition. No full commentary in Sanskrit is available on the GP. Hindi or Bengala translations of the whole or some portion of the GP are available. A small book entitled Garuda Purana Ki Alocana was written by Pt. Ganga Prasada. A.L. Awasthi has published Garuda Purana Eka Adhyanana a valuable guide for the study of the Puranas. A critical edition of the Purana was published from Varanasi in the year 1964, prepared by Rama Shankar Bhattacharya. It was translated in Hindi by Sri Ram Sharma from Bareli in 1974. Also English translation by M.N. Dutt was published in 3 vols. from Calcutta in 1908. Garuda Mahapuranam was also edited by Rajendra Nath Sharma from Delhi in 1984; we have made a frequent use of the English translations of Garuda Purana by M.N. Dutt and J.L. Shastri, Sanskrit edition by Ram Shankar Bhattacharya and Rajenda Nath Sharma, and Hindi translation by Sri Ram Sharma. AGNI PURANA The Agni Purana represents a great and commendable literary effort performed in such an epoch of ancient Indian life which witnessed multifarious progress with a notable development in the domain of literary and cultural pursuits. The Agni Purana seems, apparently a summarization and compilation of works on various subjects spread over three or four countries. As a result of the critical study of Agni Purana the process of the original kernel and

14 subsequently the Purana assumed its extant form. This process of development may roughly have spread over about three countries from AD 700 or 800 to AD 1000 AD to 1100.51 R.C. Hazra 52 proclaims that the extant Agni Purana is an apocryphal work of the ninth century AD, which attained great popularity along with the spread of Tantricism. Pargiter 53 holds that the Agni Purana was written sometime after AD 900. The genuine Agni Purana had to save it self from extinction under a different title namely Vahni Purana wrongly regarded as an upapurana by modern scholars. True to its encyclopaedic nature and shape, the present extant Agni Purana consists of an amzingly large number of subject ranging from mythology, religion, philosophy, cosmogony, polity, sociology, poetics, history, geography, medicine, military science, phonetics, grammar, art and lexicography.54 The Agni Purana was edited by Rajendra Lal Mitra, and was published in Calcutta in Bibliolitheca India Series, in 1876-80. An English translation of the Agni Purana by M N. Dutt was done in 1903-04. The Sanskrit text of the Agni Purana was edited by Acharya Baladeva Upadhyaya in 1966. The Hindi text of the Agni Purana was translated by Sri Ram Sharma Acharya in 1973. A critical edition of the Agni Purana was published by Anandasrama series, Poona, 1900. It was edited by Hari Narain Apte. It is also noteworthy to mention that a handwritten manuscript of the Agni Purana, named Vahni-Purana was discovered by R.C. Hazra. He considers the Vahni Purana as the genuine Agni Purana. Agni Puranasya Visayanukramani by Ramshankar Bhattacharya, are some of

15 the valuable works exclusively based on the Agni Purana It was reprinted by Rajendranath Sharma from Delhi in 1985. BHAVISYA PURANA The Bhavishya Purana mainly deals with the solarcult. The Brahmaparvan of Bhavishya Purana describes a temple dedicated to Sun-god." 55 Apastambadharmasutra 56 quotes some slokas from a Purana named, Bhavisyat Purana. It helps us to assume that in the fifth-fourth century BC such a Purana was in existence. Matsya Purana (53.30-31), Vayu (99.292), Agni Purana (272.12) and Naradiya (1.100) also provide some accounts of the contents of the Bhavisya not tallying with the extant matter of the contemporaneously known Bhavisya which is divided into four parvans namely Brahma, Madhyama, Pratisarga and Uttara. It is only the Brahmaparvan 57 that can claim an early date, even the Pratis agaparvan is a modern fabrication containing description of medieval and modern India. The mention of Mughal kings and even British rulers indicate such a late date as the nineteenth century. Scholar do not agree on any certain date or even any distinct set of upper and lower limits for its date so, instead of determining a specific date it seems better to treat this voluminous text as an aftermath of editing, re-editing, extraction, incorporation and compilation by several skilled literacy hands at different times in the span spreading over more than 2000 years. The Varaha Purana presents an interesting evidence about the rewriting of Bhavisya. 58 It exhibits that Samba, the son of Krsna,

16 renovated the Purana called Bhavisyat and established images of the sungod in four places, namely (i) to the south of Yamuna, (ii) between Yamuna and Multan, called Kakapriya, (iii) at Mulasthana, possibly modern Multan, and (IV) in Mathura. It seems apparent that even brahmaparva, the earliest portion of Bhavisya, has lost its ancient - 59 originality which is mentioned in Apastambadharmasutra. As the chapter 177 of the Varaha Purana is regarded as an interpolation of the sixteenth century AD.60 Moreover, the antiquity of sun-worship in India dates back from the time of the Kusanas; 61 it becomes quite common in North India in sixth-seventh century AD. with a desirable popularity already obtained in the Gupta age. 62 The Samba Purana (many slokas and even chapters from which are taken in the Bhavisya) was most likely composed during the time span extending from AD 500 to 900. It seems that the revision of Bhavisya by Samba also dates to the same period. P.V Kane proclaims that the extant Bhavisya cannot be placed earlier that about the sixth or seventh century AD The chapter 130 of the Bhavishya Purana, entitled Prasadalaksana Varnanam, is a later interpolation with a bunch of thirty slokas pertaining to temple architecture from the Brhatsamhita. The Bhavishya Purana was edited and published from Bombay by Venkateshwar Press. It was reprinted by Rajendra Nath Sharma in 3 Vols. (Nag Publication) from Delhi in 1984-85. Its Hindi translation has been done by Sri Ram Sharma Acharya in 1974

17 Vastospati is identified with the gods like Indra and Tvastrn the carpenter god, in the Rgveda 63 Later silpa literature describes Tvasta as the master architect According to Manasara he was the son of Visvakarma But he is not referred to in the Rgveda as having connection with house building He is invoked as the creator of the universe as a whole 64, and apparently it is quite natural to suppose that the altar tradition about Visvakarma had its origin in Rgvedic verses Worship of doors and of the sacrificial post evidently establishes the close connection with religion. The ceremonials connected with building operations, the measurements followed, and the rule for the selection of the land, thus 65 form the nucleus from which the Indian science of architecture, later on incorporated as the vastuvidya, had developed Nearly thirty different words were used in the Rgveda to refer to dwelling places, but very few of them give any idea about the characteristics of a building. The reference to harmya in the Rgveda is obviously to connote a more substantial structure The meaning of the word harmya is often found in later treatises to be 'a room on the upper part of a 66 house' 67 The Vedic literature contains little about the structure of a house That the people of that time had learnt the art of building and used to reside in constructed houses and lived in caves, is sufficiently clear, not only from the synonyms for a hosue 68 but also from the component

69 18 members of a building, such as doors, pillars and cross-beams. Wilson opines that 'whether the notion of masonry be confined to the walls or extended to the dwellings it indicates familiarity with something more 70 substantial than mere hovels. Mitra and Varuna are represented as occupying a great palace with a thousand pillars and a thousand gates. 71 Muir is quite reasonable when he comments on this by saying that 'this is but an exaggerated description of a royal residence such as the poet had seen'. 72 The Sulva-Sutras 73 treating of the measurement and construction of the different vedis or altars, furnish us with some interesting structural details of the Agnis, the large altars built of bricks. The construction of these altars, which were required for the Soma sacrifice, seems to have been based on sound scientific principles, and was probably the beginning of religious architecture (temple-building) in India. These altars could be constructed in different shapes, the earliest enumeration of which is found in the Taittiriya-Samhita. Following this enumeration, Baudhayana and Apastamba furnish us with full particulars about the shape of all these different chitis (altars) and the bricks which were employed for their construction. These altars were constructed of five layers of bricks, which together came up to the height of the knee; in some cases 10 or 15 layers, and proportionate increase in the height of the altar was prescribed. Every layer, in its turn, was to consist of two

19 hundred bricks, so that the whole Agni (altar) contained a thousand; the first, third, and fifth layers were divided into two hundred parts in exactly the same manner, a different division was adopted for the second and the fourth, so that one brick was never laid upon another of the same size and form. P.K. Acharya remarks: The first altar covered an area of 7 1/2 purusas, which means 7 1/2 squares each side of which was equal to a purusa, i.e., the height of a man with uplifted arms. On each subsequent occasion the the area was increased by one square purusa. Thus, at the second layer of the altar one square purusa was added to the 7 1/2 constituting the first chiti (altar), and at the third layer two-square purusas were added and so on. But the shape of the whole and the relative proportion of each constituent part had to remain unchanged. The area of every chiti (altar), what ever its shape might be falcon, wheel, tortoise, etc., - had to be equal to 7 1/2 square purusas'. 74 Frequent mention is made also of villages, towns and forts, 75 and 76 cities with hundred enclosures or fortifications are referred to. From references we know that the Vedic Indians 'were not ignorant of stone forts, walled cities, stone houses, carved stones and brick edifices'.

20 In the Buddhist literature villages are described as 'uniting of their own accord to build mote-hills and rest-houses and reservoirs, to mend the roads between their own and adjacent villages and even to lay out parks. 77 The exact details of architecture are not available. But 'we are told of lofty walls, ramparts with buttresses and watch-towers and great gates... From the frequent mention of the windows of the great houses. opening directly on to the streets or squares it would appear that it was not the custom to have them surrounded by any private grounds. There are however enclosed spaces behind the fronts of the houses which latter abutted on the streets. ,78 The Epics furnish copious description of cities, storeyed buildings, balconies, porticos, arches, enclosing walls, flights of stone masonry steps. for tanks and a variety of other structures, all indicative of the existence of several architectural edifices in India.79 The Kautilya's Arthasastra devotes seven chapters to the subject, containing a large number of structural details. There are interesting descriptions of forts, fortified cities, townplanning, military and residential buildings. The Harsacarita of Banabhatta states that 'the palace had besides the harem always more than three courtyards; the outer one being for people and for state reception, the next inner one for sardars (chiefs or nobles) and the third one for intimate persons only. The palaces were stately buildings, though not of stone. The floors are described as made of

shining stone. The columns and walls were ornamented with gold and even precious stones. There was usually a 'several storeyed building. with inner gardens of flower beds and large fruit trees'. 81 The useful articles of house furniture, such as thrones, couches, and asandi 82 meaning chairs, are also described. Kalhana's Rajatarangini refers frequently to architectural objects like castles (Bana-sala), monumental buildings, chaitya and monasteries (viharas). But in these references very few structural details are to be met with. The references of Kalhanal to temples and other buildings also generally lack constructive details. Traces of an advanced state of architecture are found also in 83 works devoted to grammar and lexicons. Yaska in his Nirukta mentions several words which can be used for masonry houses only. 84 In the later lexicons like the Amarakosa lists of several architectural terms are met with 85

Table 1 Comparative Table Showing Chapters Related to Architecture in the Four Puranas Prasadalaksanavarnanam or temple architecture Chaps Matsya Purana Chaps GP Chaps Agni Purana Chaps Bhavishya Purana 130 The laying of the fort Tripura 46 Adoration of the deity presiding over vastu 38 Benefits of constructing temples 130 217 Durga-Vidhana 47 Essential features of 39 divine temple or of a Preparations of ground for constructing temples palace 218 Durga-Sanchaya 48 Installation of divine 40 Images The mode of making the respectful offering to the god 252 Vastu-pradurbhava 253 Grha-Kala-Vinimaya 41 Mode of performing consecration 42 Construction of a temple 254 Grha-Mana-nimaya 255 Stambha-manavinirnaya 43 Installation of deities in the temples 256 Vastu-yajna 45 Characteristics of pedestals and details relating to images 61 Consecration of doors of the temple and the erection of banner 22

257 Darvaharana 65 The building of pavilions 258 Kriya-yoga-vidhi 93 in front of the temples 1 presiding deity of : Mode of worshipping the a ground 259 Pratima-laksana 94 Mode of placing the stone slabs 260 Pratima laksana 100 Rites of consecrating of doors of a temple 261 Pratima laksana 101 路 Mode of consecration of a temple 262 Pithika-laksana 102 Mode of consecrating the .flag staff 263 Linga-laksana 104 264 Pratisthanukirtana 105 鈥� General characteristic of a divine edifice Mode of worship of the presiding deity of a place 265 Adhivasana-vidhi 106 Vastu relating to cities 266 Murti-pratistha-vidhi 167 The process of performing Graha-yajna 267 Devasnapana 222 268 Prasada-vidhi 247 269 Prasadanukirtana 282 Construction of forts The characteristics of a site for building Effects of different trees and shrubs 270 Mandapa-laksana 23

24 The Puranas generally deal with the subject of architecture in more detail than the class of literature referred to above Casual references are met with for architecture in all the eighteen great Puranas. 86 Four Puranas have treated the subject more systematically and have substantially contributed to the later Silpa-sastras. The Matsya Purana has eight comprehensive 87 chapters dealing with architecture and sculpture In one of these 88 chapters accounts are given to eighteen ancient architects One chapter is devoted to the column which is the regulator of the whole composition of 89 a building Columns are divided into five classes, as in the western system and their component parts into eight mouldings exactly like those 90 of the Graeco-Roman orders Buildings are described in two chapters together with their architectural details, such as plans, measurements, classifications, pavilions, halls, storeys, steeples and cupolas. 91 Some of the building materials are also discussed in a separate chapter.92 The remaining chapters are devoted to sculpture. 93 One of the four chapters of the GP deals systematically with all the three classes of buildings, namely, residential, military and religious as well as with the laying out of pleasuregardens and pavilions therein Thus in this chapter residential buildings, forts and fortified towns, temples and monasteries are described along with garden-houses The chapter 47 treats exclusively of religious 95 94 buildings The remaining two chapters are devoted to sculpture, one

25 dealing with rules regarding the construction of an image and the other with the installation of images in temples." The Agni Purana, among all the Puranas, has a detailed treatment on the subject. There are sixteen chapters of which one deals with townplanning, two with residential buildings, and the remaining thirteen with sculpture. The importance of its contributions to the Silpa-sastra lies in two things: first, it seems to have been aware of the Manasara, the standard 97 work on architecture; secondly, its chapter on town planning is a real addition to the Puranas contributions to architecture.98 Temples and residential buildings are described in two chapters. 99 The treatment of sculpture also is unique and perhaps the most exhaustive of all the accounts given in the Puranas. It deals with almost all the classes of religious images, both of male and female deities, as well as of those not falling under either of these categories. The Bhavishya Purana, apparently a late Purana, has also nothing new to add to the knowledge of architecture. Three of its chapters are devoted to sculpture. 100 Architecture proper, comprising the description of temples is 101 treated in a single chapter. The most striking feature of this Purana is that the number, name and other architectural details of the buildings described in it are identical with the twenty types found in the Matsya Purana and the Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira of Varahamihira.

26 In Varahamihira's Brhat-samhita the chapters open with a definition of the science of architecture, the suitable building sites, testing of soil, general plan, comparative measures of storeys and doors and carvings thereon and other important parts of a building. The preliminary subjects are described in the opening chapter. 102 Then follows the description of the buildings proper under the same twenty types as in the Matsya Purana and Bhavishya Purana, the names and details being identical. 103 The preparation of cement is 104 discussed in a separate chapter. One complete chapter is devoted to the construction of necessary articles of house-furniture, such as bedsteads, couches and seats. 105 To make a comparative analysis of the architectural details discussed and elaborated in the four Puranas referred to above we have tried to supplement our discussion also from other Indian vastusastras such as the Manasara, 106 Mayamata," Amsumadabhedagama, Kamikagama,108 Visvakarma Silpasastra, Visvakarma Prakasa, Aparajitaprccha of Bhuvanadeva, 109 Silpasastra 110 Samaranganasutradhara," Silparatna 111 and of Mandana, Visnudharmottara Purana.11 112

27 Table 2 Authorities (silpis and texts) on vastuvidya Mentioned in Matsya Purana and Agni Purana Sr.No. Matsya Purana* 1 Bhrigu 2 Atri Agni Purana Pancaratra Saptaratra 3 Vasistha Hayasirsatantra 4 Visvakarma Trailokyamohanatantra 5 Maya Vaibhavatantra 00 6 Narada Pauskaratantra 7 Nagnajit Naradiyatantra 8 Visalaksha Sandilyatantra 9 Indra Vaisvakatantra 10 Brahma Saunakatantra 11 Kumara Jnanasagaravasisthatantra 12 Nandikesvara 13 Saunaka 14 Garga 15 Vasudeva 16 Aniruddha 17 Sukra 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 Brahaspati Prahladatantra Gargyatantra Galavatantra Svayambhuvatantra Kapilatantra Tarksyatantra Narayaniyatantra Atreyatantra Narasimhatantra Anandatantra Arunatantra Baudhayanatantra Arsatantra Tantra spoken to Visva

28 *I have given this order according to the list supplied in the Matsya Purana (chap. 252) and Agni Purana (chap. 39). The Matsya Purana contains the list of eighteen ancient teachers on Vastu Some of these names are given differently in some versions of the Purana Instead of Maya the name Yama is given and Garga is 113 represented as Bharga We are not in a position to ascertain the works written by these traditional writers We, however, get a list of twentyfive traditional works on silpa in the Agni Purana 114 As noticed above that some of the works are known after the names of their authors, who are known to us from the list of the Matsya Purana These traditional works on vastu are not in existence at the present day. They, however, served as the source of inspiration to many later vastu writers, who mention some of these traditional writers The Manusyalayachandrika mentions some of the names of these instructors, such as, Visvakarma and Kumara." Brhatsamhita has mentioned the names of Garga, 116 Maya, 117 Vasistha,1 Naganajita, Bhaskar and Manusmrti The treatise named Citralaksana which has been found in Tibetan language is written by Nagnajit It refers to Prahlada and Visvakarma as ancient authorities on vastu. 118 In the Brahmanas, Visvakarma is the same as the creator Prajapati. 119 According to the Matsya Purana, Visvakarma was the son of Prabhasa He was a Prajapati, as well as a silpin. As a silpin, he was expert in the construction of palaces, houses, gardens, images, ornaments, tanks and

29 wells. 120 The Agni Purana calls Visvakarma the creator of thousand silpas (crafts) 121 with the help of which men earn their living. The GP also speaks of Visvakarma as the famous silpin of the gods. 122 From the Mahabharata, we learn that Prabhasa was the father of Visvakarma and his mother was the sister of Brhaspati. As in the Agni Purana here also he was called the creator of thousand silpas, which were used by men as the means of their livelihood. 123 The Manasara holds that of the four architects created from the four faces of Brahma, the creator of the universe, the first was Visvakarma. 124 In Bharata's Natyasastra we find Brahma asking Visvakarama to build a theatre hall. In a short time, the divine architect was able to construct an auspicious house, suitable for the theatrical purposes. 125 In the Ramayana, we find Visvakarma building the city of Lanka for the dwelling 126 of the Raksas. He also constructed palaces for the sage Agastya, 128 127 for Surya¹ and for Kubera. 129 It was he who had constructed the divine 130 chariot (Puspaka-ratha) for the god Brahma. In the Skanda Purana, Visvakarma is described as building a meeting-place, at the request of Himalaya. Not only did he constructed a charming meeting-place, but adorned it with many figures of horses, peacocks and deer. He also put there the beautiful images of various gods. In Srimad Bhagavata we read that Visvakarma also built a charming palace for Krsna.

30 It becomes clear the Visvakarma was a general name given to a person who was proficient in the art of building. How could Visvakarma would have survived in different epochs. From the sixth century onward two schools of architecture emerged. To the northern school belong the Matsya Purana, GP, Agni Purana, Bhavishya Purana, the Vishvakarma Prakasha, the Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira, some of the works of Pancharatra school, the Tantras, the Vishnudharmottara Purana, the Samarangana Sutradhara, Aparajitapriccha and the works of Mandana. To the southern school belongs the Saiva Agamas, the Vaishnava Pancharatra works such as the Mayamatam, the Silparatanam, the Amsubheda of Kasyapa and other Mss. of Kasyapa's work, Visvakarma Silpa, Visvakarma Vastusastra, the Manasara, the works of Sanat Kumara, the Silpa-samgraha, the Tantrasamuccaya, and the Isanasivagurudevapaddhati also can be categorised to the southern school. NOTES AND REFERENCES 1. Percy Brown, Indian Architecture (Buddhist and Hindu), Bombay, rpt., 1971, p. 1. 2. Charles Fabri, An Introduction to Indian Architecture, Bombay, 1963, p. 5. 3. D.N. Shukla, Hindu Science of Architecture, Lucknow, 1960, p. 54. 4. Ibid., p. 55.

31 5 Puranic Kosha Acharya, Indian Architecture According to Manasara Silpasastra, Calcutta, 1927, rpt., New Delhi, 1981, p. 1. 6. Shatapatha Brahmana, III. 6.4.27. 7. 8. Aitareya Brahmana, VI. 1. T.P. Bhattacharya, The Canons of Indian Art or a Study of Vastuvidya, 2nd edn, Calcutta, 1963, pp. 1-2. 9. Vayu Purana, chap. 8; Markandeya Purana, chap. 49; Brahmanda Purana, chap. 8. 10. The actual words used is 'kanta'. Some scholars think this to be a 11. 12. later variation of the word 'Kanda' John Marshall, et al., Cambridge History of India, vol. 1, New Delhi, 1968, p. 617. Shatapatha Brahmana, XIII, 8.1-4. 13. Tarapada Bhattacharya, The Canons of Indian Art, p. 10. 14 Atharvaveda, XI.7.24, Brhadaranyaka Upanisad, 11.4.10; Baudhayana Dharma Sutra, 2.5.9.14, Taittiriya Brahmana, 3.12.8.2. Vayu Purana, 1. 203. 'Purana is known as such because it existed 15. 16. in the past.' Padma Purana, 2 53: 'The literature which describes the ancient tradition, is a Purana.' 17. Matsya Purana, 53. 63: 'It as a collection of narratives of old and ancient events.'

32 18. puranam sarvasastranam prathamam brahmana krtam | anantaram ca vaktrebhyo vedastasya vinirgatah || English trans. by N. Gangadharan, Agni Purana, Delhi, 1984, introduction, p. xvi; Matsya Purana, 53.3-4 cf, also VP, 1.54; Brahmanda Purana, 1.1.40; Markandeya Purana, 45.20; Brahma 161.27; etc. 19. See fn. 2 above. Also cf. Brhadaranyaka Upanisad, 11.4.10. 20. Satapatha Brahmana, XIII 4.3.13 and Gopatha Brahmana, 1.10. Also of Vayu Purana, 1.17. 21. Chandogya Upanisad, VII. 1.2. 22. Vayu Purana, 1.180. 23. Bhagavata Purana, 1.25. Here Puranas are also implied by the Bharata-Akhyana, for the compilation or the Puranas preceded that of the BharataAkhyana of the Mahabharata. Shatapatha Brahmana, XIII 4.3.13; GB, 1.10; VP 1.17. 24. 25. Matsya Purana, 53. 69. 26. Visnu Purana, 3.6.15-18. Vide also Vayu Purana 61.56-61; Brahmanda Purana, 2.35.63-69. 27. Astadhayayi, 4.3.23. 28. Padma Purana, 1.1.45. 29. Atharvaveda, XI. 7.24; XV.6.11. 30. Gopatha, 1.2.10; Shatapatha Brahmana, 14.6.10.6. 31. Taittiriya Aranyaka, 2.10. 32. Asvalayanagrhasutra, 3.3.1; Chandogya Upanisad, 7.17.

33 33 Amarakosa, 165 The Pancalaksana verse is found in a number of 34 35 36. 37. 38 39 40 41 42 Puranas such as Agni Purana, 114, GP, 12.27, Kurma Purana; 1.1 12, Matsya Purana, 53.64; Siva Purana - Vayaviya samhita 1.41; Vayu Purana 4 10 11; Visnu Purana 36 25. PV. Kane, History of Dharmasastra, vol V, part II, BORI, Poona, 1962, p 855 Bhavishya Purana, 11.104-105 M.A. Winternitz, A History of Indian Literature, translated by Subhadra Jha, vol 1, pt II, Delhi, 1967, p 529 Vajasaneyi Samhita Agrawala, Matsya Purana - A Study, Varanasi, 1963, preface, pp XI-XII The edition used in this study comprises 290 chapters although according to some other sources this number is 291. See Vajasaneyi Samhita Agrawala, op. cit., pp 342-366 T.P Bhattacharya, The Canons of Indian Art, p. 135. Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira, chap. 56.31. For the date of Brhatsamhita, see see Tahsildar Singh, 'Bhavisya Purana and Brhatsamhita on Temple Architecture A Collective Study', Purana, vol XXIII, 1981, p 65 V.S. Agrawala, op. cit., preface, p iii. F.E Pargiter, The Puranic Text of the Dynasties of the Kali Age, rpt., Varanasi, 1962, p. xii.

34 43 RC. Hazra, Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and 44 45. Customs, Dacca, 1940, pp 26 ff P V. Kane, History of Dharmasastras, vol IV, BORI, Poona, 1953, px See Hazra, Puranic Records, pp 176-77 46 Matsya Purana, 53.8 47. See Manabendu Banerjee, 'Matsya Purana Chapters on Indian Architecture and Sculpture,' Purana, vol XXI, no 1, 1979, pp 64 ff P.K. Acharya, Indian Architecture, pp 194 ff; T. Bhattacharya, The Canons of Indian Art, p 133 48. 49 50. Tahsildar Singh, 'Matsya Purana and Early Medieval Temple Architecture', Purana, vol XXV, 1983, p 50 BH Kapadia, 'The Garuda Puranam', Purana, vol VIII, no 1, 1966, p 102 GP, chap 1, Visnu Purana, 1 21.17; Brahma Purana, 6.6.21. 51 S.D Gyani, Agni-Purana A Study, The Chowkhambha Sanskrit Series, vol XLII, Varanasi, 1964, pp 288-89 52. R.C. Hazra, 'Studies in the Genuine Agneya-Purana', Our Heritage, vol. I, pt. II, 1953, pp 209 ff. 53. Pargiter, op cit, p. 80 54. HH Wilson, Analysis of the Puranas, rpt, Delhi, 1979, p 83 55 Bhavisya-Purana | (Brahmaparvan), chap 130; Sri Venkatesvara Press, Bombay, 1955, pp 192 ff

35 56. 'Punah sargabijartha bhavantiti Bhavisyatpurane', Apastamba- 57. 58. 59. 60. Dharmasutra, II, 9246, Dhurtasvami Bhasya, Oriental Institute, Baroda, 1955. P.V. Kane, History of Dharmasastras, vol. V. pt. II, BORI, Poona, 1962, pp. 896-97. Varaha-Purana, Sri Venkatesvara Press, Bombay, n.d. See also Bhavishya Purana, 172 4-7 for three primary centres of sun-worship, namely, Indravana, Mundira and Kalapriya. For For detailed discussion and identification of these three places with those modern ones see V.V. Mirashi, 'Some Puranic passages corroborated by inscriptional and Numismatic Evidence', Purana, vol. 1, no. I, 1959, pp 38-51 R.C.'Hazra, Studies in the Puranic Records on Hindu Rites and Customs, pp. 180-81. V.V Mirashi, Purana, vol 1, no. 1, p. 50. 61. 62 J.F. Fleet, Corpus Inscriptionum Indicarum, vol. III, p. 88 ff. 63. Rgveda, V. 41.8. 64 Ibid., X. 6.81-82. 65 Ibid XII 8. ' 66. 67. Buddhaghosa commentary on Cullavagga; Samarangana Sutradhara, 18.9.12 Also see T Bhattacharya, op cit p. 14 A.A. MacDonell and A B Keith, Vedic Index, London, 1912, pp 229-31.

68 69 36 For griha, dhama or dhaman, pastya and harmya in the sense of the whole compound, see Rigveda, III, 53.6; IV, 49.6; VIII, 10 1 Atharvaveda, VII, 83.1, X, 6 4; Aitareya Brahmana, VIII, 21 Dvar and dvara, Rigveda 1.136, AV, VIII 3.22; XIV 1.63 Vajasaneyi - Samhita, XXX, 10 Shatapatha Brahmana, XI, 1 1.2; XIV, 3 1 13. - 70 71. 72 73. 74 Wilson, Rgveda, vol III, notes on IV 30 If ancient Mohenjodaro people are identified with Asuras of the Vedas, it indicates the existence of brick built and perhaps also stone built buildings in the Rgvedic period Compare Rigveda, II 415, V. 62 6, VII. 88 5; AV, III.12; IX 3 which contains prayers for the stability of a house at the time of its construction Muir, Sanskrit Texts, V, 455. Compare R.L Mitra, Indo-Aryans, 127: 'Pillars, spacious doors and windows, though frequently mentioned are not decisive indications of the existence of masonry buildings: but bricks could not possibly have originated unless required for such structures, for it would be observed to suppose that bricks were known and made and yet they were never used in the construction of houses' For detailed study see, Apastamba-Sulva-Sutra, ed. and trans. by Satya Prakash, New Delhi, 1968. P.K Acharya, Indian Architecture According to Manasara Silpasastra, rpt, New Delhi, p. 8.

75 37 Rigveda, I 58.8, 144.1; II 208, IV. 27 1, 30 20; VIII. 3.7; 15 14; 89.8; 95.1. 76. Ibid., I.166.8; VII. 15.14. 77 Rhys Davids, Buddhist India, 42 45 49 78. Ibid, pp. 64-5. 79. P.K. Acharya, Indian Architecture, pp. 17-18. 80 81. 82. 83. 84. 85. 86. Kautiliya's Arthasastra, chaps 22, 23, 24, 25, 65, 66. Harasacarita of Banabhatta, tr. by E.B. Cowell and F.W. Thomas, 2nd edn., Delhi, 1968, pp. 215-16. Ibid., pp 103, 153 Rajatarangini of Kalhana, tr. by R S. Pandit, New Delhi, 1968. R.L. Mitra, Indo Aryan, 1, 25-26 Amarakosa, ed. Sivadatta, section on towns and houses, chap II, section II named pura-varga, verses 1-20, Bombay, 1915, pp. 116-126. Yayu, Skanda, Matsya, Visnu, Bhagavat, Padma, Garuda, Agni, Braham, Siva, Narada, Markandeya, Varaha, Vamana, Linga, Kurma, Brahamvaivarta and Bhavisya. Matsya Purana, chaps, 252, 253, 254, 255, 256, 257, 269, 270. 87. 88. Ibid, chap. 252. 89. Ibid., chap. 255. 90. P.K. Acharya's, Indian Architecture, pp. 128, 147, 149 91 Matsya Purana, chaps 269, 270

92 Ibid., chap 257 93 Ibid., chaps, 258, 262, 263 94. GP, chap 46 95. Ibid., chap. 47 96. Ibid., chaps., 45, 48 97. Cf. Agni Purana, chaps., 42, 104. 98. Ibid., chap. 106. 38 dya 99. Ibid., chaps., 42, 104. For detail, see P.K. Acharya, Indian Architecture, p. 113 100. The Madhya-parvan, chap. 12; The Brahma-parvan, chaps., 131, 101. 132. The Brahma-parvan, chap. 130. Prasada-laksana-varnanam. 102. Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira, chap 53. 103. Ibid., chap. 56. 104. Ibid., chap. 57. 105. Ibid., chap. 79. 106. P.K. Acharya, Indian Architecture, rpt., New Delhi, 1981; Acharya, Manasara on Architecture and sculpture, Oxford, 1933, rpt., New Delhi, 1979, Acharya, An Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture, Oxford, 1946, rpt., New Delhi, 1979. 107 Mayamata of Mayamuni, ed. T Ganapati Sastri, Trivandarum Sanskrit Series, no LXV, Trivandrum, 1919

39 108. Kamikagama, Government Oriental Manuscript Library, Madras, MS no. D 5421. 109. Aparajitaprccha of Bhuvanadeva, ed. P.A Mankad, GOS, no. CXV, Baroda, 1950. 110. Samaranganasutradhara, ed. V.S. Agrawala, GOS, no. 25, Baroda, 1966. 111. Silparatna, Trivandrum Sanskrit Series, Trivandrum, 1922 112. Visnudharmottara Purana, ed. Priyabala Shah, GOS, nos. CXXX, CXXXVII, Baroda, 1958, 1961 113. Sabdakalpadruma of Raja Radhakantadeva, vol. IV, (Nag Publishers) Delhi, 1987, p. 359. 114. Agni Purana, chap. 39. 115. Manusyalayacandrika, chap 1 5.8. It is cited from Silpa Sastram by P.N. Bose, introduction, p. V 116. Brihat Samhita of Varahamihira, chap. 56.5 31. 117. Ibid, chap. 57 8 118. Ibid., chap. 58 119 Ved Myth pp 117-118 120. Matsya Purana, chap. 51. 27-28 121. Agni Purana, chap. 18. 40-41. 122 GP, chap. 6.5.36. 123. Mahabharata , Adi Parva, ss. 2590-2593. 124. P.K. Acharya, A Summary of the Manasara, p. 2.

125. Nattyasastra, chap. I. 45-46. 126. Ramayana, Uttarakanda, chap. 3.26. 127. Ibid., Kiskindakanda, chap. 41.36. 128. Ibid., chap. 42, 44. 129. Ibid., chap. 43, 21. 130. Ibid., Sundarakanda, chap. 9.11. 131. Srimad Bhagavata, X, chap. 59, 50-53. 40