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1 Sanskrit aesthetics generally goes by the name alamkarasastra, literally, "the science of [poetic] ornamentation. It is also called the rasasastra ("science of aesthetic sentiment"), due to its tendency to concentrate, in its later period, on the theory of rasa. It is concerned almost exclusively with problems of poetics and drama, and is therefore more limited in scope than the more broadly conceived Western philosophic discipline known as aesthetics. I follow established convention here in referring to it as "aesthetics" or "poetics," and its writers as "aestheticians" or "rhetoricians." 鈥� 2 cf. Natyasastra 22.99, 148: "Most people always want happiness. And women, of infinite variety, are the source of happiness. . One practices austerities for the sake of religion. And after all, we are (only) concerned with religion because we want to be happy. The source of happiness is women, and we want to make love to them" (bhuyistham eva loko 'yam sukham icchati sarvada / sukhasya hi striyo mulan nanasilas ca tah punah // dharmartham hi tapascarya sukhartham dharma isyate sukhasya mulam pramadas ca tasu sambhoga isyate, quoted and trans. by Masson and Patwardan, Aesthetic Rapture: The Rasadhyaya of the Natyasastra [Poona: Deccan College, 1970], I, 37; II, 52, note 308). A study of the religious dimensions of the rasa- sastra as formulated by the great Saiva mystic Abhinavagupta is not possible here. See K. C. Pandey, Comparative Aesthetics, Vol. I: Indian Aesthetics (Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series, Studies, Vol. II; Varanasi: Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series Office, 1959), chap. 2, "The Saiva Basis of Abhinava's Aesthetics"; also Masson and Patwardhan, Santarasa and Abhinavagupta's Philosophy of Aesthetics (Poona: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, 1969). 3 See intro., note 8. 4 See my exposition of the five primary bhaktirasas of the Bengal Vaisnavas, below, sec. 6.4. 443

444 ! 5 Donna M. Wulff, Drama as a Mode of Religious Realization: The Vidadghamadhava of Rupa Gosvami (Chico, California: Scholars Press, 1984), pp. 8-11. See David Kinsely's lucid exposition of the Krsnaite theology of lIla in The Divine Player (Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1979), chaps. 2-3. 6 Norvin Hein, The Miracle plays of Mathura (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1972), chap. 9; Wulff, chap. 2. 7 Wulff, pp. 22-23. 8 Hein, pp. 259-262, quotes Harivamsa 2.21; Vishnu Purana 5.13.24-29; Bhagavata-purana 10.29-30, 11.11.23. 9 The extent to which Rupa in his BRS envisioned the devotees entering into the devotional moods of the main characters--such as Nanda, Yasoda, the prominent gopis, and especially Radha--is actually the subject of much dispute, the details of which I cannot enter into here. Suffice it to say that the later commentators tend to confine the devotees to the role of spectators--as manjaris or maidservants of the gopis, who derive satisfaction by facilitating the trysts of their mistresses with Krsna. "The commentators writes Wulff, "are more concerned than Rupa to maintain distance, not only between the devotees and the Lord, but also between the devotee and Krsna's close associates, who are elsewhere classified by Jiva as parts of Krsna himself" (p. 31). See Wulff, See Wulff, pp. 29- 34. 鈥� " 10 Kinsley, The Divine Player, p. 159. See pp. 153- 161 of Kinsley's book for a clear exposition of Bengal Vaisnava devotional practice. Even today, serious devotees in Bridavan strive to enter into Krsna's eternal lila by adjusting their lives to synchronize with the child-god's diurnal routine, as it varies through the liturgical year. To aid the bhakta's imagination, the eight watches of the Lord's day, and the divine sports that he and his companions enact therein, are described in loving detail in such texts as the Govindalflamrta of Krsnadasa Kaviraja. The routine of the temples of Brindavan likewise follows the Lord's daily round, thus providing ritual support for the devotee's recollection. See Shrivatsa Goswami, pp. 79-80, 339 (note 36); John S. Hawley, At Play with Krishna: Pilgrimage Dramas from Brindavan (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), pp. 6-9. llKinsley, Divine Player, p. 161.

445 12 Wulff, pp. 2, 9; Hardy, Viraha-Bhakti, pp. 559-557. " 13 We find references to poetic terms in the Vedas and in Panini's grammar (fourth century B.C.E.). See Edwin Gerow, "Classical Sanskrit Aesthetics, in Joesph W. Elder, ed. Lectures in Indian Civilization (Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company, 1970), pp. 88-89. On the date of the Natya-Shastra, see S. K. De, Sanskrit Poetics (2 nd rev. ed.; Calcutta: Firma K. L. Mukopadhyay, 1960), I, 18-31. Masson and Patwardhan remark: "While an exact date seems out of the question, we are inclined to date the text within two or three hundred years of the third century A.D." (Aesthetic Rapture, I, 1). 14 Sometimes, as "mood," though "sentiment" is more popular, having the advantage of suggesting refined, pleasurable emotion. In the works of A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami, founder of the Krsna Consciousness movement, the term is translated as "mellow" or "transcendental mellow. It 11 15 Ras, "to taste," is the Sanskrit root. According to the standard etymology, "Rasa is that which is tasted or enjoyed" (rasyate asvayate iti rasah, quoted by Chakravarti, p. 345, note 9 [my trans. ]). The word can also mean sap, "juice," "liquid extract, "elixir," "essence, "pith, "pleasure, "delight," or even "bliss. at 11 " " " 16, 6 rase saras camatkaro yam vina na rasorasah (Alankarakaustubha, 5.7; quoted by Chakravarti, p. 345, note 10. 17 Natya-Shastra 6.15-16; De, Sanskrit Poetics, II, 275. 18 The Bengal Vaisnava tradition uses this same term to designate the first appearance of bhakti in the heart of the devotee. See chap. 4.3.4. 19 Natya-Shastra 6.17. 20 De, Sanskrit Poetics, II, 133-134, note 40. 20 De, The first explanation is referred to by Jiva Gosvamin as a rule of the exponents of the rasasastra: viruddhair aviruddhair va bhavair vicchidyate na yah atmabhavam nayaty anyan sa sthayi lavanakarah (quoted by Chakravarti, p. 349. 21 rasika eva rasasvade yogyah, quoted by S. K. De, Sanskrit Poetics as a Study of Aesthetic (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1963), p. 54 (my trans.). 22 The question of the nature and original source of the sthayibhava of bhaktirasa is a crucial one for both the

446 Vaisnva theologians and Madhusudana. In their view, as we shall see, it is not derived from empirical experience. 23 De, Sanskrit Poetics as a Study of Aesthetic, p. 12-13, 53; De, Sanskrit Poetics, II, 133-134; Kinsley, pp. 150-151 24 De, Sanskrit Poetics, II, 261. 25 Quoted by A. K. Coomaraswamy, The Dance of Shiva (New York: Dover Publications, Inc., 1985), p. 35. 13. 26 De, Sanskrit Poetics as a Study of Aesthetic, p. 27 v. Raghavan, The Number of Rasas (Madras: The Adyar Library and Research Center, 1975), p. xviii. 28 De, Sanskrit Poetics, II, 275-277. The encyclopedic Agni Purana has a section on rasa which, though it recognizes santa as a ninth sentiment, is highly idiosyncratic in its approach. It made, so far as I can see, no special contribution to the religious development of the rasa theory being discussed here. See De, Sanskrit Poetics, II, 200-206. 29 Raghavan, Number of Rasas, p. 119; De, Sanskrit Poetics, II, 275. 30 Raghavan, Number of Rasas, pp. 119-142. 31 Raghavan, Number of Rasas, p. 122. 32 De, Sanskrit Poetics, II, 278-279. 33 It also shows that the Vaisnavas' designation of the rasasastra as an essentially "secular" (laukika) discipline is not entirely inappropriate, even in the context of traditional India. Cf. note 2. 34 De, Vaishnava Faith and Movement in Bengal, p. 124, note 1; Sanskrit Poetics, II, 268, note 19. 35 Hardy, Viraha-Bhakti, p. 560. 36 This at least partially explains the importance in Vaisnava spirituality of sravana, the "hearing" of the accounts of Krsna's life. See sec. 6.1, above. 37 Hardy, Viraha-Bhakti, p. 561. James D. Redington

447 (Vallabhacarya on the Love Games of Krsna [Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, 1983], pp. 3-5) argues that the Bhagavata-purana itself has a distinctly "aesthetic orientation." This, he feels, is made most obvious in the final verse of the opening invocation: "Drink, O connoisseurs (rasika) on earth who are endowed with emotion (bhavika), drink constantly [of this] Bhagavata-nectar (rasa), [this] vessel that is the fruit fallen from the wish-fulfilling tree of the Veda, full of the nectar (rasa) flowing from the mouth of Suka" (nigamakalpataror galitam phalam sukamukhad amrtadravasamyutam pibata bhagavatam rasam alayam muhur aho rasika bhuvi bhavukah, Bhagavata-purana 1.1.3, my translation). Redington refers to Bhagavata-purana 7.1.10, 10.29.15, and 10.43.17, all of which could be construed as depicting characters acting out various sentiments in accordance with the canons of classical Sanskrit aesthetics. On this basis, he develops (p. 5) the interesting, and perhaps defensible, thesis that the Bhagavata-purana is in an important sense a secondary work--in that it makes conscious use of the categories, aesthetic and otherwise, of scholastic traditions that were already well developed. 38. sa navadha bhaktah. bhaktirasasyaiva hasya- srngarakarunaraudrabhayanakabibhatsasantadbhutavirarupenanubhavat (quoted by Raghavan, Number of Rasas, p. 143). Cp. Madhusudana's notion of devotion "mixed with the nine sentiments" (Bhakti-rasayana 1.1). 39 According to Hemadri, the sthayin of bhaktirasa is "the fixation of the mind [on God] by any means' (kenapy upayena manonivesa, Raghavan, Number of Rasas, p. 143). Cp. Bhagavata-purana 7.1.31. 40 Raghavan, Number of Rasas, pp. 143-144. 41 See Hardy, Viraha-Bhakti, pp. 561-562. 42 This is an area that crys for further research. Pereira writes that "Vallabha did not create his theology of joy in a vacuum, but bases his structure on the theory of aesthetics, which originates in the work of Bharata" (Jose Pereira, Hindu Theology: A Reader [Garden City, New Jersey: Doubleday, 1976], p. 317). While this may well be true, I have been able to confirm an interest in a detailed application of the categories of rasa theory to bhakti only in Vallabha's followers. Pereira gives no documentation for Vallabha's interest in the subject, but he does note (p. 317) that the great poet and aesthetician Jagannatha Panditaraja, who flourished at about the same time as Madhusudana (ca. 1620-65), was a member of Vallabha's sampradaya.

448 Redington (pp. 7-11) shows that, while both Vallabha and his son Vitthala (ca. 1518-1588) understand the loveplay of Krsna and the gopts in terms of aesthetic categories, especially srngararasa, the use of the technical terminology of poetics is more prominent in Vitthala, e.g.: "The love-making that occurred after that was nothing but His gift of His own innate bliss according to the cannons of rasa, since His very essence is rasa, as is declared in scripture: "He, verily, is rasa" [Taittiriya Upanishad 2.7.1] (tadanantaram yad ramanam, tat tu tat tu "raso vai sa" iti sruteh svarupasya rasatmakatvad rasaritya svarupanandadanam eva, Subodhint on Bhagavata-purana 10.29.16, Vitthala's interpolation; Redington, p. 369, my translation). Majumdar's discussion of this school's theories on rasa appears to be based on the work of Vitthala and a later author named Purusottama (b. 1660). Majumdar (p. 74, note 50) quotes the former as saying: "Rasa, the enjoyer of rasa, and bhagavat are one" (sa raso bhagavan eva rasavans caiva ekah, Majumdar, pp. 70-71; 74, notes 50-51; for dates see Dasgupta, IV, pp. 374, 377). Evidently the tendency to try to elevate the status of bhaktirasa by closely identifying it with Krsna was fairly widespread in the sixteenth century. Dasgupta's remarks on bhaktirasa in the Vallabha school are based on the Bhaktimartanda by Gopesvara, but this writer was not born until 1781 (Dasgupta, IV, 350-354, 380). Hardy (Viraha-Bhakti, p. 562) credits Vallabha with the statement, "When the mind and all the senses have taken on the form of Bhagavan [bhagavadrapata] [bhagavadrapata] . . . who (which) creates pure bliss, then alone [one possesses] bhakti-rasa." A perusal of Dasgupta, Hardy's source in this case, quickly reveals, however, that the quote is not from Vallabha at all but from Gopesvara. Nevertheless, the statement is interesting because the notion of bhagavadrupata ("taking on the form of Bhagavan") is so important in the Bhakti-rasayana Intriguing in this connection also is the fact that, according to Dasgupta, both Purusottama and Gopesvara reject the doctrine that bhakti is "a reflection of God in the melted heart on the ground that this would make bhakti identical with God" (IV, 352-353). It is possible, therefore, that writers of Vallabha's school were, by the seventeenth century, familiar with the teachings of the Bhakti-rasayana It is clear that Vallabha and especially Vitthala were interested in the religious applications of rasa theory. But nowhere have I been able to find evidence that they developed this interest to the extent that the Gosvamins did. 鈥� Vittala was a younger contemporary of Madhusudana. It is perhaps significant that, according to one of Vallabha's biographies (the Nijavarta), he was sent by his father to Madhusudana as a student, to further his

449 scholastic education (P. M. Modi, Siddhanta Bindu [Allahabad: Vohra Publishers and Distributors, 1985], pp. 22-23). See my intro., note 28. In the 43 The classical statement of Vaisnava bhaktirasa theory is found in Rupa's companion works, the Bhaktirasamrtasindhu and the Ujjvalantlamani. latter, Rupa acknowledges his debt to Vopadeva: spastham muktaphale caitad bopadevena varnitam (quoted by Raghavan Number of Rasas, p. 144). Jiva's Pritisamdarbha gives, according to De, a rather more metaphysical account of the subject than Rupa, though he follows the general outline of his uncle's treatment (Vaishnava Faith and Movement in Bengal, p. 123, note 1). 44 See De, Vaishnava Faith and Movement in Bengal 45 De, Sanskrit Poetics as a Study of Aesthetic, pp. 44-45, 59-60, 117-118. 46 prof. De sees a close connection between Rupa's work and "a prolific series of erotico-rhetorical treatises, beginning with Rudrabhatta's Singaratilaka, in which the minute diversities of the amorous condition are elaborately analysed with surprising assiduity and acuteness" (Sanskrit Poetics as a Study of Aesthetic, p. 45). 16. 47 De, Sanskrit Poetics as a Study of Aesthetic, p. 48 Chakravarti, p. 348. 49 De, Vaishnava Faith and Movement in Bengal, p. 149. 50 cc madhya 19.180-237; De, Vaishnava Faith and Movement in Bengal, p. 143-149; Wulff, pp. 27-28; Shrivatsa Goswami, pp. 77-80. 51 De, Vaishnava Faith and Movement in Bengal, p. 143; Wulff, p. 27. 52 De, Vaishnava Faith and Movement in Bengal, pp. 144-145. 53 De, Vaishnava Faith and Movement in Bengal, p. 145; Wulff, p. 27. 54 De, Vaishnava Faith and Movement in Bengal, pp. 272, 296; Shrivatsa Goswami, p. 79. 55 Caitanya-caritamrta madhya 19. 193-200; De, Vaishnava Faith and Movement in Bengal, pp. 153 (note 1), 303; Chakravarti, p. 261; Shrivatsa Goswami, pp. 76-77. 56 De, Vaishnava Faith and Movement in Bengal, p. 148, 286. Note that the devotees of Rama were also attracted to the theory of bhaktirasa and recognized the value of approaching the deity through the various sentiments. Priya Das, a commentator on the

450 Bhaktamala, endorses exactly the same five bhavas acknowledged by the Gosvamins. In Rama devotionalism, however, the dasyabhava or servant mood, exemplified by Hanuman, is regarded as the highest. See F. R. Allchin, trans., Tulsi Das, The Petition to Ram (London: George Allen & Unwin, Ltd., 1966), pp. 57-59. 57 De, Vaishnava Faith and Movement in Bengal, p. 149; Wulff, pp. 26-27. 58 See above, chap. 4.3.6; Chakravarti, p. 345. 59 See above, 4.3.6. 60 For a discussion of the three material qualities (gunas), see chap., note 177. 4.3.1. 61 Chakravarti, p. 348. 62 Chakravarti, p. 348, 357-358; see above, chap. 63 raso vai sah, Taittiriya Upanishad 2.7.1; De, Vaishnava Faith and Movement in Bengal, p. 213. 64 De, 64 De, Vaishnava Faith and Movement in Bengal, p. 285. 65 Chakravarti, p. 350, 353-355. 66 Wulff, p. 4. 67 See intro., note 38. 68 krodhasokabhayadinam saksatsukhavirodhinam rasatvam abhyupagatam tatha'nubhavamatratah // ihanubhavasiddhe 'pi sahasragunito rasah pi sahasragunito rasah / jadeneva tvaya kasmat akasmat apalapyate, Bhakti-rasayana 2.78-79; Shrimad-bhakti-rasayanam, p. 185. 69 ratir devadivisaya vyabhicari tathorjitah / bhavah prokto raso neti yad uktam rasakovidaih // devantaresu jivatvat paranandaprakasanat / tad yojyam paramanandarupe na paramatmani, Bhakti-rasayana 2.74-75; Shrimad-bhakti-rasayanam, p. 183. rasa 鈥� 70 See Bhakti-rasayana 1, sec. IV: IV: "The permanent emotion known as love (rati) is the form of the Blessed Lord. Manifest as a it reveals itself as an immediate realization of the highest bliss" (rasarupataya 'bhivyakto bhagavadakararupo ratyakhyasthayibhavah paramanandasaksat[kar]atmakah pradurbhavati, Shrimad-bhakti-rasayanam, p. 10). See also Bhakti-rasayana 1, sec. XVIII (1.10 and commentary); chap. 5.5; and Raghavan, Number of Rasas, p. 184. 71 1 parmananda atmaiva rasa ity ahur agamah, Bhakti-rasayana 3.24; Shrimad-bhakti-rasayanam, p. 197.

451 72 sthay Ibhavah sukhatvena vyajamano rasah smrtah sukhasyatmasvarupatvat tadadharo na vidyate / tadvyanjikaya votes tu samajikamanah prati, Bhakti-rasayana 3.2 b-3; Shrimad-bhakti-rasayanam, pp. 186, 188. 73 The "causative factors" are the vibhavas, anubhavas, and vyabhicaribhavas. and the notes thereon. See Bhakti-rasayana 1, secs. IV, XVII 74 bhavatritayasamsrstasthayibhavavagahini / samuhalambanatmaika jayate sattviki matih // sa nantaraksane vasyam vyanakti sukkham uttamam tad rasan kecid acaryas tam eva tu rasam viduh, Bhakti-rasayana 3.12-13; Shrimad-bhakti-rasayanam, p. 191. 75 See Bhakti-rasayana 1, sec. XVIII, stanzas 1.11-12 and commentary. 76 kantadivisaya va ye rasadyas tatra nedrsam rasatvam pusyate purnasukhasparsitvakaranat / paripurnarasa ksudrarasebhyo bhagavadratih / khadyotebhya ivadityaprabheva balavatara, Bhakti-rasayana 2.76-77; Shrimad-bhakti-rasayanam, p. 184. 77 Bhakti-rasayana 2.31-35; Shrimad-bhakti-rasayanam, pp. 161-162. 220-229 78 Further details may be found in Gupta and appendix. Gupta' s study is largely descriptive; and more work needs to be done to determine exactly what Madhusudana was trying to accomplish in his exposition of rasa-theory in chapters two and three of the Bhakti-rasayana Insofar as I can determine, however, I have extracted all the material from those chapters that has a bearing on the philosophical dimensions of the issue at hand. 79 Bhakti-rasayana 2.26-28; Shrimad-bhakti-rasayanam, p. 158. 80 Raghavan, Number of Rasas, p. 152. 81 Bhakti-rasayana 2.12-13; Shrimad-bhakti-rasayanam, p. 150. 82 Bhakti-rasayana 2.9-11; Shrimad-bhakti-rasayanam, p. 147. 83 Bhakti-rasayana 2.36; Shrimad-bhakti-rasayanam, p. 164. 84 Bhakti-rasayana 2.66-71; Shrimad-bhakti-rasayanam, p. 180-182. 85 vrajadevisu ca spastam drstam raticatustayam taccittalambanatvena svacittam tadrsam bhavet, Bhakti-rasayana 2.71; Shrimad-bhakti-rasayanam, p. 182. 86 See Bhakti-rasayana 1, sec. XXIX and the notes thereon.

452 87 ekah paramanandamayah srisamahatmyakaranam // tajjanyayam drutam suddha ratir govindagocara / etadantam hi sastresu sadhanamnanam isyate, Bhakti-rasayana 2.12 b-13; Shrimad-bhakti-rasayanam, p. 150. below). 88 See Bhakti-rasayana 2.12 b (previous note) and 2.65 (note 85 89 suddhasattvodbhava 'py evam sadhakesv asmadadisu / drstamatraphala sa tu siddhesu sanakadisu, Bhakti-rasayana 2.46; Shrimad-bhakti-rasayanam, p. 165. On Sanaka and the four "mind-born" sons of Brahma, see chap. 7, note 240, below. It is perhaps significant in this connection that Samkara, in the introduction to his commentary on the Bhagavad Gita, identifies Sanaka and the others as the first, paradigmatic exponents of the path of renunciation and knowledge: "The Blessed Lord, having created the world, and being desirous of its preservation, brought forth in the beginning Marici and the other Progenitors and caused them to adopt the path of action declared in the Vedas. Then, having brought forth others such as Sanaka, Sanandana, and the rest, he caused them to adopt the path of cessation from action, characterized by knowledge and detachment" (sa bhagavan srstvedam jagat tasya ca sthitim cikirsur maricyadin agre srstva prajapatin pravrttilaksanam dharmam grahayamasa vedoktam 鈽� tato 'nyams ca sanakasanandanadin utpadya nivattidharman jnanavairagyalaksanac grahayamasa, Shrimad-bhagavad-gita, pp. 2-3) There can be no doubt that Madhusudana was familiar with this passage. 90 See, e.g., Bhagavata-purana 6.13; 11.2-3, 7-9, 13. Not surprisingly, these are also among the passages that show strong non-dualist tendencies. 91 rasantaravibhavadirahitye tu svarupabhak / dasamim eti rasatam sanakader ivadhikam, Bhakti-rasayana 2. 73; Shrimad-bhakti-rasayanam, p. 183. 92 tatranupadhih suddha syat sopadhir misritodita // anupadhih paranandamahimaikanibandhana / bhajaniyagunanantyad ekarupaiva socyate, Bhakti-rasayana 2.64 b-65; Shrimad-bhakti-rasayanam, p. 179. 93 navarasamilitam va kevalam va, Bhakti-rasayana 1.1; Shrimad-bhakti-rasayanam, p. 1. 94 Note that Madhusudana calls the sixth stage of bhakti, which consists of Advaitic knowledge of the atman, the "realization of the essential nature" (svarupadhigati). In the Bhakti-rasayana 1, sec. XI, Madhusudana states that a devotee may engage in the study of the Vedanta "for the sake of determining the essential nature (svarupa) of the object of their worship" (bhajaniyasvarupanirnayartham, Shrimad-bhakti-rasayanam, p. 31).

453 So the granting to suddhabhakti of access to the essential nature in the phrase svarupabhak (2.73) is probably meant to have Advaitic overtones. But the passage in question is obscure and, in the absence of any elaboration by the author, it is difficult to say exactly what he intends. See chap. 7, note 291, pt. VI. 180. 95 ek hf prakarka (sambhogrup) mana jata hai, Shrimad-bhakti-rasayanam, p. 96 See chap. 4.3.5.