Gati in Theory and Practice
by Dr. Sujatha Mohan | 2015 | 88,445 words
This page relates 鈥楻eferences to drama, dance and music in Sanskrit literature鈥� of the study on the Theory and Practice of Gati (鈥済ait鈥�) which refers to the 鈥渕ovement of a character on the stage鈥�, commonly employed (as a Sanskrit technical term) in ancient Indian Theatrics and the Dramatic arts, also known as Natya-shastra. This thesis explores the history and evolution of Gati and also investigates how the various Gatis are employed in regional performance traditions.
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References to drama, dance and music in Sanskrit literature
狈腻峁瓂补 is a composite art that can be known with different terms. Terms related to 苍腻峁瓂补 are 诲峁浥泍补办腻惫测补, 谤奴辫补办补, upa谤奴辫补办补, 蝉补峁単墨迟补, prek峁, prayoga, 苍峁泃迟补, 苍峁泃测补, nartana, 苍补峁璦苍补, 濒腻蝉测补, 迟补耻谤测补迟峁沰补 and so on. The performers of 苍腻峁瓂补 were known as 苍补峁璦, bharata, 艣补颈濒奴峁, 办耻艣墨濒补惫补 and so on. The art of dance and drama are interrelated. Scholars opine that the art of dancing was present prior to the art of dramatics as we have reference to the word 苍峁泃迟补 in the Vedas, but the word 苍补峁璦 was first located in 笔腻峁噄苍颈鈥檚 work. Even when 叠谤补岣补 creates the 狈腻峁瓂补veda, 艢颈惫补 says that he was reminded of his 苍峁泃迟补. However, the art of dance, music and drama are interrelated. The Vedic literature reveals a good knowledge of drama, dance, music and musical instruments. Antiquity of the art of 苍腻峁瓂补 is known through references in Sanskrit literature. These were responsible for the development of these art forms. The 苍腻峁瓂补veda is the knowledge of 苍腻峁瓂补 or the holistic theatre and the 狈腻峁瓂补艣膩stra is the record of the science of 苍腻峁瓂补.
1. Vedic period
The Vedas reveal a good knowledge of dance and music. 峁欢惫别诲补 has more recitations, the Yajurveda has actions made by priests and in the Atharvaveda, a mental state was produced by the priests in order to perform the rituals.[1]. Vedic sacrifices were essentially mimesis. The concentration of mind that evokes rasa is also connected with Atharvaveda procedures. While enumerating the wide range of professions and pastimes, the Vedic seers refer to dance. 峁欢惫别诲补 refers to the term 鈥�苍峁泃鈥�.[2].The word 鈥�苍峁泃u鈥� occurs in the sense of a female dancer to whom Goddess 鲍峁蝉 is compared. 鲍峁蝉 is described as revealing her beauty like a dancer removing the garments in the form of darkness.[3]
The Apsaras and 骋腻苍诲补谤惫补蝉, whose profession was dancing, and singing have found a mention in this work. The 峁歬蝉 or verses in the 峁欢惫别诲补 are all composed in musical accents called 鲍诲腻迟迟补, 补苍耻诲腻迟迟补 and svarita. The eighth book of this Veda, in which songs predominate, is called 笔谤补驳腻迟腻, a word derived from the root 鈥�驳腻颈鈥� (to sing). Another reference to music is made where the girls sing to welcome a person.[4] Instruments such as dundubhi (drum), karkari (flute), 惫墨苍补, and 苍腻诲颈 (reed flute) are mentioned in some instances.[5]
The 痴腻箩补蝉补苍别测颈 samhita of the 艢耻办濒补 Yajurveda mentions of the term 苍峁泃迟补 and 驳墨迟补. It says, a 厂奴迟补 is employed for dance and a 艢补颈濒奴峁 for music.[6] In the Atharvaveda there is a mention about dance and the term 鈥�苍峁泃鈥�[7] 厂腻尘补惫别诲补 comprises of the 峁沰蝉, which are sung, with melodic extensions of the vowels called stobhas. Many aspects of musical notes can be seen in this Veda. 厂腻尘补惫别诲补 with the hymns set to tune clearly shows that the art of music was fully developed in Vedic age.
Other than these, the Vedic index shows a very wide variety of musical instruments in use in Vedic times. Instruments of percussion are represented by the terms such as 腻岣峚尘产补谤补; a kind of drum; 产丑奴尘颈-dundubhi, an earth drum made by digging a whole in the ground and covering with hide; vanaspati, a wooden drum. The stringed instruments are represented by the 办补峁囜笉补 惫墨峁嘺, a kind of lute; 惫墨峁嘺 a lute of hundred strings. The solid instruments by aghati, a cymbal used to accompanying dance and the hollow instruments represented by 迟耻峁嘺惫补, a wooden flute. Thus, many references to the music, dance and drama are seen from the Vedic age.
Among the four upavedas, the 骋腻苍诲丑补谤惫补 Veda is the science of music that embraces a wide sphere of dancing, singing, acting, playing on the instruments and so on. The 骋腻苍诲丑补谤惫补 Veda is the Upaveda of 厂腻尘补惫别诲补.
狈腻峁瓂补艣膩stra refers to music as 驳腻苍诲丑补谤惫补.
gandharv膩峁嚹佱箖 ca yasm膩ddhi tasm膩dgandharvamucyate ||[8]
Abhinava in his commentary says g膩峁� dh膩rayat墨ti 驳腻苍诲丑补谤惫补m |
He quotes Vi艣膩kila who says:
svarapada迟腻濒补samav膩ye tu 驳腻苍诲丑补谤惫补m |[9]
Kallin膩tha in the commentary of Sa峁叢的俨箁atn膩kara says,
蝉腻尘补惫别诲补蝉测辞辫补惫别诲辞 驳腻苍诲丑补谤惫补veda岣� |
He also adds,
苍腻峁瓂补峁� veda eva 驳墨迟补辫谤腻诲丑腻苍测补vivak峁y膩 驳腻苍诲丑补谤惫补veda ucyate |
abhinaya 辫谤腻诲丑腻苍测补 vivak峁y膩 tu 苍腻峁瓂补 veda iti cocyate ||[10]
骋腻苍诲丑补谤惫补 is referred to in 搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺. The 蝉腻尘补苍 singers were connected with the sacrifice, while the 骋腻苍诲丑补谤惫补s were professional musicians. The word 驳腻苍诲丑补谤惫补 denoted music other than 蝉腻尘补苍 music. Of course, the 蝉腻尘补苍 music must have impetus to the 驳腻苍诲丑补谤惫补 music.[11] The 骋腻苍诲丑补谤惫补veda was used in the preliminaries and in the actual performance in the form of 诲丑谤耻惫腻 songs and as an accompaniment to various movements.[12]
Music is referred to in the 蝉补峁僪颈迟腻 works Maitray膩峁噄 蝉补峁僪颈迟腻, 罢补颈迟迟颈谤墨测补 蝉补峁僪颈迟腻 and Yajus蝉补峁僪颈迟腻. They saw that women were taught some of the fine arts like dancing and singing.[13] In the 碍补耻艣墨迟补办颈 产谤腻岣补峁嘺 sacrificial priests are described as performing gestures. It also says 蝉补峁単墨迟补 forms a part of 测补箩帽补. 艢颈濒辫补 is described as dance, vocal and instrumental music in 碍补耻艣墨迟补办颈 产谤腻岣补峁嘺[14] and 厂腻峁卥丑测腻测补苍补 产谤腻岣补峁嘺.[15]
In the 艢补迟补辫补迟丑补 产谤腻岣补峁嘺 the Apsaras are referred to as dancing and singing at the 补艣惫补尘别诲补 sacrifice.[16] In the 罢补颈迟迟颈谤墨测补 产谤腻岣补峁嘺[17] we get reference to 惫补峁兣沘 苍补谤迟颈苍腻尘 which 艢腻测补苍补 explains as va峁兣浤乬ra 苍峁泃迟补 j墨vanam, one who has livelihood by dancing on the pole end. In the Jaimin墨ya 产谤腻岣补峁嘺, we have reference to 苍峁泃迟补 and 驳墨迟补 as found in the sixth world.[18]
Some of the 蝉奴迟谤补 works furnishes details about dancing and singing. In the 膧辫补蝉迟补尘产补 g峁沨ya蝉奴迟谤补 there is reference to music.鈥�
鈥済腻测补迟补尘颈迟颈鈥�[19]
The well known 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补蝉尘峁泃颈 says that if 惫墨峁嚹� is played as a devotional offering with flawless 艣谤耻迟颈, svara and 迟腻濒补, this itself leads to salvation (尘辞办峁).
惫墨峁嚹� 惫腻诲补苍补 tatvaj帽a岣� 艣谤耻迟颈 箩腻迟颈 惫颈艣腻谤补诲补岣� |
迟腻濒补j帽a艣ca aprayatnena 尘辞办峁m膩rga峁� sa gacchati ||
The earliest usage of 鈥�苍补峁�鈥� from which the term 苍腻峁瓂补, is found in 础峁ａ弓腻诲测补测墨. 笔腻峁噄苍墨 mentions about 苍补峁璦蝉奴迟谤补s, hand-book on aphorisms. These aphorisms on the science of 苍腻峁瓂补 were prepared by two earlier authors鈥� 艢il膩lin and 碍峁浥浤伵泇补.[20] 笔腻峁噄苍颈 mentions that at the time of 尘补丑腻惫谤补迟补蝉迟辞尘补 rite, wives of the priests and young maidens danced. The orchestral band inclusive of vocalists and the accompanying artiste of 惫墨峁嚹� are mentioned.
The art of dancing was confined to women alone in the period of 笔补迟补帽箩补濒颈. He refers female dancers as nartakika. 惭补丑腻产丑腻峁补 refers to the actors taking feminine roles as Bhrukumsa[21] and the trainers of actors as 艢辞产丑补苍补办补[22]. 笔补迟补帽箩补濒颈 mentions some musical instruments like drum (尘峁沝补峁単补), conch (艣补峁卥丑补), flute (迟耻峁嘺惫补) and another instrument of the guitar type 惫墨峁嚹� having seven-strings.[23] One proficient in playing on 尘峁沝补峁単补 was known as 尘腻谤诲补峁単颈办补.[24]
In the K膩ma蝉奴迟谤补 of 痴腻迟蝉测腻测补苍补 dated 2nd century B. C. refers to 驳墨迟补m, 惫腻诲测补尘, 苍峁泃测补m, 苍别辫补迟丑测补辫谤补测辞驳腻岣�, 苍腻峁璦办腻办丑测腻测颈办腻 诲补谤艣补苍补峁� as sixty-four 谤补峁単补 惫颈诲测腻.[25] This marks as progressive development in the field of music and dance. The 础谤迟丑补艣腻蝉迟谤补 mentions about 苍补峁璦s and nartakas.[26] The 惭补苍耻蝉尘峁泃颈 that is a 顿丑补谤尘补艣腻蝉迟谤补 has some references to dance and music.
In the Siddh膩nta Kaumud墨, the specialist in the art of story telling, 苍补峁璦 is mentioned in the sense of dancing and acting.[27] The dancing girls go to the bride鈥檚 village in a procession from the bridegroom鈥檚 village along with the accompaniment of musicians. This ceremony is prescribed in the 蝉奴迟谤补 of 厂腻峁卥丑测腻测补苍补. A passage from the 膧辫补蝉迟补尘产补 Dharma蝉奴迟谤补 says that the women possessed a complete knowledge of all the branches of art. In the 碍腻迟测腻测补苍补 艢rauta蝉奴迟谤补, 苍峁泃迟补, 驳墨迟补 and 惫腻诲颈迟谤补 are mentioned.[28]
2. Classical period
The 颈迟颈丑腻蝉补蝉, 辫耻谤腻峁嘺蝉 and 办腻惫测补蝉 have many references about the various art forms. 搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺 and 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 have influenced all Hindu art through the ages. The 搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺 refers to 苍补峁璦, nartaka, 驳腻测补办补, and so on.[29] All through the description of the royal entertainments provided by the sage 叠丑补谤补诲惫腻箩补 to Bharata and his army, there is reference to 狈腻谤补诲补, 罢耻峁僢耻谤耻 and 驳腻苍诲丑补谤惫补s and to various apsaras as dancers. In the 碍颈峁颈苍诲腻办腻峁囜笉补, Svayamprabhu refers to dance and music. In the 厂耻苍诲补谤补办腻峁囜笉补 experts in dance and instrumental music are referred to while describing 搁腻惫补峁嘺鈥檚 harem.
The 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 also refers to terms like 苍峁泃迟补, 驳墨迟补, 惫腻诲颈迟谤补, nartaka, 苍补峁璦, 驳腻测补办补, and so on.[30] This work mentions that the 骋腻苍诲丑补谤惫补s and Apsaras delighted the priests in the intervals of sacrificial rites by the arts of dance and music. In this epic, we are told how Arjuna learnt the art of dance from Citrasena and during the incognito stay of the 笔腻峁囜笉补惫补蝉 in 痴颈谤腻峁璦 kingdom he as the eunuch 产谤腻岣补峁嘺, taught this art to 鲍迟迟补谤腻, the daughter of the King. 厂耻产丑补诲谤腻, the sister of 碍峁涐梗峁嘺 and the queen of Arjuna, was an expert in dancing.
Many 笔耻谤腻峁嘺蝉 makes references of dance and music. M膩rka峁囜笉eya Pur膩峁嘺 states that,
鈥淭here is indeed no success in dancing for one who is beautyless.鈥�
ar奴pasya 苍峁泃测补m vyartham |
yath膩-苍峁泃yen膩lamar奴pe峁嘺 siddhir苍腻峁瓂补sya r奴pata岣� |[31]
Here we find 峁歵辞诲惫补箩补, son of king 艢补办谤补箩颈迟, who is fond of dance and music. All heavenly beings like Apsaras, 骋腻苍诲补谤惫补蝉, 狈腻谤补诲补 and 罢耻峁僢耻谤耻 worship the Sun God by dancing and singing. Chapter twenty-three of this 辫耻谤腻峁嘺 deals with the technicalities of music.[32] 骋腻苍诲丑补谤惫补 Veda is included among the eighteen subjects of study.[33]
In V膩yu 辫耻谤腻峁嘺, 艢颈惫补 is referred to as one who is fond of dance.
骋墨迟补, 惫腻诲测补, 苍峁泃测补 and 苍腻峁瓂补 are considered the foremost among the sixty-four arts. Reference to these arts is found in many Sanskrit works. The works, which give the list of the name of the arts, are 艢颈惫补tantra,[35] 厂耻办谤补苍墨迟颈蝉腻谤补, 闯补测补尘补峁単补濒补, Samav膩ya蝉奴迟谤补, Lalitavistara, 厂奴迟谤腻濒补峁卥腻谤补, 碍补濒辫腻苍迟补谤补惫腻肠测腻苍颈, and so on.
In Raghu惫补峁兣沘, 础驳苍颈惫补谤峁嘺 is described as an adept in 迟腻濒补 and laya. When he was playing upon the 辫耻峁补谤补 he inspired the dancing girls, who erred in their gesticulations, though their masters were standing by their sides.[36] He contended for superiority with the dance masters who were proficient in abhinayas namely 惫腻肠颈办补, 腻峁単颈办补 and 蝉腻迟迟惫颈办补.[37] This type of abhinaya has been by explained by Bharata as s膩m膩nya abhinaya. The 腻濒墨诲丑补 posture suitable for shooting with the bow and arrow mentioned by Bharata is referred here.[38] In the description of the spring season, the creepers in the garden with their leaves shaken by the winds are compared with the dancers keeping laya within their hands.[39]
In 碍耻尘腻谤补蝉补尘产丑补惫补, the enactment of 苍腻峁瓂补 by the Apsaras is mentioned. 碍腻濒颈诲腻蝉补 says, 鈥�狈腻峁瓂补 is full of graceful body movements (补峁単补丑腻谤补蝉), where the four styles (惫峁泃迟颈蝉) were displayed at various junctures and had different notes in the transition of emotions.鈥�[40] 鈥極n the birth of 碍耻尘腻谤补, as the musical instruments 补峁卥测补, 腻濒颈峁単测补 and 奴谤诲丑惫补办补 sounded, the Apsaras danced according to the lilt of the well measured songs with relish, dripping with emotions and sentiments in which words coalesced well.鈥�[41] The gait of Apsaras,[42] the gait of 笔腻谤惫补迟墨 compared with 谤腻箩补丑补峁僺墨[43] and a creeper[44] and her gait in 蝉峁涐箙驳腻谤补 after seeing 艢颈惫补 are described in a very beautiful manner.[45]
In 惭别驳补诲奴迟补, a reference to the dancing girls says,鈥榯heir waist zones are jingling at the planting of their feet and their hands are fatigued by the waving of chowries.鈥�[46] This is called 诲别艣颈办补 in 狈峁泃测补蝉补谤惫补蝉惫补, which refers to the dancing girls, loins girdled up with jingling tones and having in their feet anklets furnished with tinkling bells, dance with measured steps set down as stated intervals, holding in their hands a 惫墨峁嚹�, a ball, the hem of their garment, chowries and so on.[47]
In 艢颈蝉耻辫腻濒补惫补诲丑补, there is reference to dancing. 鈥淪he walked, with a step languid through love, with her anklets sounding with a graver music then when in brisker movement, with her lotus like left foot gracefully dancing, while planting the other one not so coquettishly鈥�.[48] In 顿补艣补办耻尘腻谤补肠补谤颈迟补, Dandin refers to 办补谤补峁嘺蝉 and 补峁単补丑腻谤补蝉 as performed by the 碍耻尘腻谤补 in disguise of a 苍补峁璦 and also princess 碍补苍诲耻办腻惫补迟墨 executing the 办补谤补峁嘺蝉 and 尘补峁囜笉补濒补蝉. He describes various movements in the design of lotus, snake, etc.[49] These are similar to the 辫颈峁囜笉颈蝉 given by Bharata.
In 闯腻苍补办墨丑补谤补峁嘺, there is a reference to the dancer proficient in the depiction of the 蝉腻迟迟惫颈办补 bh膩vas.[50] In 骋补诲测补办补谤峁嚹乵峁泃补 the spring season is referred to as the dance master, who teaches 濒腻蝉测补, to the creepers which are swaying in the breeze.[51] While describing the capital city, the silken banner cloth is described as executing 鈥�recakas鈥� due to the wind.[52] The banners on the chariot which moved softly in the wind are portrayed as doing the delicate movements of 濒腻蝉测补.[53] The battlefield with full of beheaded bunks of solders, which performed violent actions, is compared to a theatre where the forceful dance 迟腻峁囜笉补惫补 is performed.[54]
碍耻峁弓补苍墨尘补迟补 of D膩modaragupta describes the performance of the first act of 搁补迟苍腻惫补濒颈 by the courtesans.[55] Dance was regarded as a 艣颈濒辫补. 笔谤别峁卥丑补峁嘺办补, a kind of dance and parikrama movement of the feet in dance known as 肠腻谤颈蝉 are mentioned. 笔腻诲补尘腻迟谤补 is explained as keeping time with feet. Hand gestures like 蝉补苍诲补峁兣沘 and 办补峁璦办腻尘耻办丑补 are mentioned.[56] 搁腻箩补迟补谤补峁単颈峁噄 mentions thirty-two modes of dancing. Lalitavistara calls dance as 惫腻诲测补苍峁泃测补, dancing to the accompaniment of instrumental music. In 叠腻峁嘺鈥檚 贬补谤峁肠补谤颈迟补 a performance of 腻谤补产丑补峁璱 惫峁泃迟颈 is described where the actors move about with blowing hair due to their virile movements. Hari惫补峁兣沘 refers to 苍腻峁璦办补.[57]
碍腻诲补尘产补谤颈 mentions that the techniques of dance are given by Bharata.
产丑补谤补迟腻dipra峁嚹玹膩ni 苍峁泃测补 艣膩str膩峁噄 |
艢颈惫补 rahasya describes the form of N峁泃ta m奴rti. Lord 艢颈惫补 has many forms but above all he is celebrated as 狈补峁璦谤腻箩补, the king of dancers, and worshiped by the dancers as their patron. The form of 狈补峁璦谤腻箩补 who performs the 膧nanda 迟腻峁囜笉补惫补 represents the 辫补帽肠补 kriyas namely the 蝉峁涐梗峁璱, sthiti, 蝉补峁僪腻谤补, 迟颈谤辞产丑腻惫补 and anugraha. The Lord dancing with 办耻帽肠颈迟补 辫腻诲补 is described.[58]
惭耻办迟颈尘腻谤驳腻苍耻肠颈苍迟补苍补尘 describes 艢颈惫补 as 膧苍补苍诲补尘奴谤迟颈 who performs the 腻苍补苍诲补 迟腻峁囜笉补惫补 which leads one to cross over the ocean of 蝉补峁僺腻谤补.[59] The 迟腻峁囜笉补惫补 of 艢颈惫补 along with the musicians Tumburu and 狈腻谤补诲补 singing the songs and Nandi handling the cymbals is described.[60] The dance of Muruga on seeing 艢颈惫补 is also explained.[61]
厂补诲耻办迟颈办补谤峁嚹乵峁泃补 describes the beautiful upward, circular and speedy movements of 艢颈惫补鈥檚 蝉补苍诲丑测腻 迟腻峁囜笉补惫补 at the end of the kalpa.[62] Haravijaya describes Lord 艢颈惫补 performing the 诲补峁囜笉腻辫补诲补峁� 办补谤补峁嘺 gracefully, which was similar to the one performed by Lord 痴颈蝉峁嘘 in his 痴补尘补峁嘺 补惫补迟腻谤补.[63] Lord 艢颈惫补 performing the 补峁単补丑腻谤补蝉, 办补谤补峁嘺蝉, 苍峁泃迟补 hastas, 尘补峁囜笉补濒补蝉 and recakas are also given.[64] 艢颈惫补p膩d膩dike艣a var峁嘺nam, 艢颈惫补ke艣膩di辫腻诲补 var峁嘺nam, Sri 艢颈惫补rahasyam, 厂迟谤辞迟谤腻谤峁嘺惫补尘, 碍耻帽肠颈迟腻峁単谤颈蝉迟补惫补尘, and so on, explicitly describes the dance of 艢颈惫补. 碍峁涐梗峁嘺l墨l膩tara峁単i峁嚹�, 狈腻谤腻测补峁嚹珁补尘, and the like, refers to Krishna鈥檚 k膩li峁単anartana and 谤腻蝉补办谤墨岣嵞�.
The 狈腻峁瓂补varga of 狈腻尘补濒颈峁単腻苍耻艣腻蝉补苍补 of Amarasi峁僪a refers to this art.
艣ail膩linastu 艣ail奴峁Ｄ� j膩y膩j墨v膩 k峁浥浤伵泇ina岣� |
产丑补谤补迟腻 ityapi 苍补峁伵沜膩ra峁嚹乻tu ku艣墨lav膩岣� ||[65]
础尘补谤补办辞艣补 further contains terms like 苍补谤迟补办墨 and 濒腻蝉颈办腻 for female actors. 苍补谤迟补办墨l膩sikesame | Names are enlisted for male actors and males who take female roles.
bhraku峁僺a艣ca bhruku峁僺a艣ca bhr奴ku峁僺a艣ceti 苍补谤迟补办补岣� |
蝉迟谤墨惫别峁诲丑腻谤墨 puru峁 n膩峁瓂oktauga峁噄k膩jjuk膩 ||[66]
艢补产诲补谤补迟苍腻办补谤补 says,
鈥�狈腻峁瓂补 is referred to as 迟补耻谤测补迟峁沰补, a combination of 苍峁泃测补, 驳墨迟补 and 惫腻诲测补.鈥�
迟补耻谤测补迟谤颈办补峁� 苍峁泃测补驳墨迟补惫腻诲测补峁� 苍腻峁瓂补峁� ca tata trayam |
The evidences for music, dance, mime and dialogues are found in Vedas, 辫耻谤腻峁嘺蝉, 蝉补峁僪颈迟补蝉, 蝉奴迟谤补s, 办腻惫测补蝉, 艣腻蝉迟谤补蝉 and many other Sanskrit works. It was considered as the foremost among the arts and was learnt and practsed in society. It was also a pastime during this period. Thus, from the Vedic, Epic and classical periods, dance and drama had come through as an uninterrupted stream.
Footnotes and references:
[1]:
Prof.Jaitly a.i.o.conference paper 1959.
[2]:
峁欢惫别诲补 1.30.7; 8.24.9; 8.37.7; 8.81.3; 10.18.3; 10.29.2;
[3]:
Ibid.1.92.4;
[4]:
Ibid.9.56.3;
[5]:
Ibid.1.28.5; 2.43.3; 10.32.4;10.135.7;
[6]:
艢耻办濒补-yajurveda:35.6;
[7]:
Atharva-veda:12.1.41; 4.9.8;
[8]:
狈腻峁瓂补艣膩stra XXVIII.9.
[9]:
Ibid.Com.p.7.
[11]:
搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺: I.4.10; II,2,35;
[12]:
Studies in the 狈腻峁瓂补艣膩stra-G.H.Tarlekar. p.2,3.
[13]:
Yaj.Sam. VI. 7. VII.5.
[15]:
San.Br.29.5.
[16]:
Sat.Br. III. 2.4.3-6; XIII.4.3.5;
[17]:
罢补颈迟迟颈谤墨测补-产谤腻岣补峁嘺 III. 2.1. Ibid.
[18]:
Jaimin墨ya-产谤腻岣补峁嘺 I. 42.
[19]:
膧p.Gr. su. 14.4
[20]:
础峁ａ弓腻诲丑测腻测墨: 4.2.66; 3.110-111.129.
[21]:
惭补丑腻产丑腻峁补: IV.1-3
[22]:
Ibid. III.1-26
[23]:
惭补丑腻产丑腻峁补:II.2-34
[24]:
Ibid.IV.4-55
[25]:
K膩m.S奴t: 1.3.16.,1.4.421.
[26]:
础谤迟丑补-艣腻蝉迟谤补: II 27.25.
[27]:
厂颈诲诲丑腻苍迟补-办补耻尘耻诲墨: p.444.
[28]:
碍腻迟蝉测腻测补苍补-艣rauta-蝉奴迟谤补: XXI.P.867.
[29]:
搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺: III.15.13.
[30]:
惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补: IV.39.55-56.
[31]:
M膩rka峁囜笉eya-辫耻谤腻峁嘺: I.36.
[32]:
Ibid.XXIII. 51-54.
[33]:
V膩yu辫耻谤腻峁嘺: 24.2.39.
[34]:
Ibid.61.78-80.
[35]:
As quoted in 艢abdakalpadruma Vol.II.p.58.
[36]:
Raghu惫补峁兣沘: 19.14.
[37]:
Ibid.XIX.36.
[38]:
Ibid.III.52.
[39]:
Ibid.IX.35.
[40]:
碍耻尘腻谤补蝉补尘产丑补惫补: VII.91.
[41]:
Ibid.XI.36.
[42]:
Ibid.I.4.
[43]:
Ibid.I.34.
[44]:
Ibid.III.54.
[45]:
Ibid.V.85.
[46]:
Megasande艣a I.38.
[47]:
Ibid.Com. p.30.
[48]:
艢i艣up膩lavadha VII.18.
[50]:
闯腻苍补办墨丑补谤补峁嘺: VIII.20.
[51]:
骋补诲测补办补谤峁嚹乵峁泃补: p 39.
[52]:
Ibid. p.61.
[53]:
Ibid.p 59.
[54]:
Ibid.p 33.
[55]:
碍耻峁弓补苍墨尘补迟补: 88-928.
[56]:
Ibid.878, 547, 86, 804, 928, 87, 759
[57]:
Hari惫补峁兣沘: II. 91.26;93.28;
[58]:
Siv.R: I.33. 5 -15.
[59]:
Muktim膩rg膩nucintana: II.84.
[60]:
Ibid. II.95.
[61]:
Ibid.II.101.
[62]:
厂补诲耻办迟颈办补谤峁嚹乵峁泃补:3,5.
[63]:
Haravijaya: II.43.
[64]:
Ibid.II.36.59.
[65]:
狈腻尘补濒颈峁単腻苍耻艣腻蝉补苍补 N.V. 1.7.
[66]:
Ibid.1.7.429, 430