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504 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM Bharata (varsa) According to the Jambudivapannatti, the country of Bharata is situated in the southern most part of Jambudvipa. It is bound on the north by Cullahimavanta and on the south, east and the west by the Lavana ocean. It is divided into Uttarardha and Daksinardha² Bharata by the Vijayardha mountains stretching from the east to the west in the middle of it. The lake Padmadraha³ situated in the middle of the Cullahimavanta is said to be the source of the Ganges and the Sindhu which flow first to the south, go across the Vijayardha mountain, again flow in the Daksina Bharata towards the east and the west and then empty into the eastern and the western Lavana-Samudra respectively. Thus these two rivers and mount Veyaddha divide the Bharata country into six divisions. 5 6 In the Brahmanical literature the situation of the Bharata is between the Himalaya and the sea. The Markandeyapurana locates it in the south of Jambudvipa'. But there 'Bharata' covers a much larger area than the real Bharata, because Bharatavarsa has been divided into nine regions which are separated by inaccessible seas and the last region is called Bharata. 8 According to the Buddhist conception of the world, Jambudvipa means India except Simhaladvipa.9 The Ganges and the Sindhu have their sources in the Anavatapta sarovara beyond the Himavat. 10 The Sumangalavilasini does¹¹ not mention Sindhu whereas the five rivers of Jambudvipa are said to be the Ganges, the Jamuna, Sarabhu Aciravati and Mahi. Thus we find that Bharatavarsa meant a larger area than India to the Brahmanical conception and Jambudvipa of the Buddhists 12 was 1. Su 10; also Tiloyapannatti, 4.107; 4.196f, 4.252f. 2. Referred to in the Paumacariya as Bharahaddhavasa (7.164 & 8.143) and Dihinabharaha (13.7). 3. Tiloyapannatti, 4.195. 4. Jambudivapannatti, Su. 73. & 74. 5. Jambudivapannatti, Su. 10. 6. Vishnu Purana 2.3; 1; Markandeya Purana 54.49. 7. 52.21. 8. Markandeya Purana 54.4, Vishnu Purana 2. 3. 6f (Vide B. C. Law's Historical Geography of Ancient India Int.). 9. Geog. Essays, p. 5. 10. Vasubandhu's Abhidharmakosa-Vide H.L. Jain-Tiloyapannatti, Int. p. 88. 11. II. 429. 12. The Asoka minor Rock Edicts of Ashoka I mentions Jambudvipa which denotes the whole country ruled by him.

GEOGRAPHICAL PLACES, PEOPLES AND TRIBES 505 the India proper while to the Jainas and the Brahmanas Jamudvipa cannot a very big continent and Bharatavarsa of the Jainas was the real India. The Paumacariya further at (102.109) refers to two trees namely the Salmali and the Jambu growing in Jambudvipa. The Jambudivapannatti tells us that the Jambu tree stands in the Uttarakuru, to the south of the Nila, to the north of the Mandara, to the west of the Malavat and on the eastern bank of the river Sita.¹ After the name of this tree the whole continent is called as Jambudvipa, In the Brahmanical works also this tree is said to be the reason of naming the island as Jambudvipa.² The Buddhist works also assign the same reason for calling it as Jambudvipa³. The tree is said to be standing near the Anavatapta Sarovara beyond the Himavat.4 According to the Jaina tradition, the country was named Bharatavarsa after the name of the first Cakravartin Bharata, the son of the first Tirthankara. According to the Brahmanical sources the name Bharatavarsa was derived from king Bharata, a descendant of Priyavrata, the son of Manu Svayambhu潞. Thus it is clear that according to the Jaina tradition, Bharata is the Indian continent which is surrounded by Lavanodadhi (Indian ocean) in the south and the Veyaddha (the system of Vindhya mountains) divided the country into the northern plains and the southern plateau. Further the Paumacariya refers to the Sindhu Sagara (112.17), the Himalayas (10.13), the Ganges (11.111), the Jamuna (55.42), the Sindhu (98.63), the Narmada (10.29) and the Tapti rivers (25.1). Sindhusagara is the Arabian sea on the west. The Ganges, the Jamuna and the Sindhu rivers water the northern plains of India while the Narmada and Tapti flow into the western Vindhya region and empty into the Arabian sea. Now we proceed to explain the geographical terms mentioned in the Paumacariya and then after we will try to identify the locations of various geographical places referred to in the Paumacariya 1. Su. 90; also Tiloyapannatti, 4. 2195. 2. Vn. pu, 2.2.18. 3. Vinaya Texts, I. p. 127. Visuddhimagga, I. 205-206. 4. Vinaya Texts, I. P. 30. 5. See Vasudevahindi Vol. I., p. 186 & Life in Ancient India, p. 375. 6. Bhag Pu, XI. 2.15ff.

506 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM Country or State is generally denoted by Desa (11.108; 33.23; 38.57; 98.61), Visaya (Avanti-visaya 33.11) or Janapada (Magahaja- navaya 2.1). Janapada is used in the sense of the people also (purajanavaya the citizens of the capital 11.107). Videsa (39.117: 37.19) denoted the foreign country or other state. Then there are references to some particular people who were some ancient tribes and the region where settled in came to be known after their names. Thus the countries such as Yavana, Saka etc. (98.64) denote the places of their habitation. The Paumacariya says "it is also true that some peoples are named after regions to which they belong." The Asuras, Yaksas, Kinnaras, Gandharvas etc. are such instances (7.49-50). The unit of people's habitation is generally termed as Nivesa (3.114) or Sannivesa (5.249). Various types of settlements such as Nagara, Pura, Pattana, Kheta, Karvata, Madamba, Dronimukha, Grama and Palli (2.1,2; 11.103: 32.9; 39.63) are mentioned. The Paumacariya does not differentiate between a Nagara, Nagari and a Pura or Puri (20.10;21. 6; 8.156; 11,5; 35.26). Sometimes Grama and Pura are identical (Kundagamapura 2.21; Kundapura 20.50), Except Nagara, Pura, Grama ane Palli there is no reference to any habitation, the name of which ends in Pattana, Kheta, Karvata, Madamba or Dronimukha. For their significance other works¹ can be referred to. There are references to a number of Dvipas A Dvipa in the Indian literature always does not mean that it should have waters surrounding it. There are several references to Saka and Yavana dvipas which were not islands but the inland-regions of the Sakas and the Yavanas in the North-West India. For example the Paumacariya refers to Vanaradvipa (6.34) and many others (6.31-33) The Vanaradvipa can be indentified with the high lands of Kiskindhi mountains near Raichur in the Deccan plateau. The geographical places and peoples mentioned in the Paumacariya can be dealt under five separate heads viz., (1) Those associated with Rama (including the route of his exile); (2) Those conquered by Lavana and Ankusa; (3) Those associated with the great persons of the Jaina faith; (4) Those referred to in the intervening stories; and (5) Unidentified places. Besides that we shall take up the Aryan and the non-Aryan peoples referred in the Paumacariya It should be noted that some clans and countries are identical as the Paumacariya reveals. Some of them are specifically 1. Tiloyapannatti, 4. 1398-1490; The Jinist Studies by Otto Stein, pp. 9.12 & 19; Kautilya's Arthashastra 2.1. 2-4; Shama, p.45. 2. Jambudivapannatti, 53. p. 217; Ava Cu, p. 191; Vasudevahindi Vol. I., p. 146; Jambudivapannatti Sangaho 7. 104 calls Magadha country a dvipa.

GEOGRAPHICAL PLACES, PEOPLES AND TRIBES 507 mentioned as Anaryas and at places no distinction is made between the Aryas and the non-Aryans. (1) Places and peoples referred to in the main story or associated with Rama. Saketapura:-Rama's birth place was Saketapura (25.22). It is variously called as Ayodhya (37.19). Vinitapuri (24.34;32.50), Kosalapuri (99.30), Kosala (20.28), Kosalanagari (98.53), and Kosalapuri was the birth (82.5). It is called Prathamapuri also (28.70) as it place of the first Jina and it was the first city to be established by Dhanada (3.113;20.30; Paumacariya 3.169). It is mentioned in the Paumacariya (99.30) that some river lay near it. Ayodhya is identified with a place about six miles from the Fyzabad Railway station in Uttara Pradesh. The river should be the Saryu on which it is situated. The Saryu is identified with the Ghagra or the Gogra in Oudh¹. The Paumacariya mentions Ayodhya as the capital of Kosalodesa- Kosalavisaya-Kosalapurivisaya (99.29). Kosala was one of the 16 great Janapadas of ancient time. It lay to the east of the Kurus and Pancalas and to the west of the Videhas from whom it was separated by the Gandak². Aruhasthala: Rama's mother, Aparajita was the princess of Aruhasthala and the daughter of its king Sukosala (22 106). The Paumacariya (22.171) mentions that place as Darbhasthala. Darbha is the other name of the Kusa grass, therefore Darbhasthala and Kusasthala are two names of the same place. The Paumacariya further mentions Kusasthala also and says that marital relations existed between the kings of ancestor of Dasaratha, namely Ayodhya and Kusasthala. An Kirtidhara had married a princess of Kusasthalapura (21.79). The Paumacariya calls it Kausalastha (21.142). According to the Valmiki Ramayana there were two Kosala countries viz. North-Kosala and South-Kosala (Valmiki Ramayana, 7-107). Ayodhya was the capital of North Kosala or Oudh while Kusavati was the capital of South Kosala and Kusa ruled there. The Valmiki Ramayana (7.108. 4) mentions that Kusavati was situated in the Vindhyas (Vindhyaparvatarodhasi). The Valmiki Ramayana Vayupurana mentions it as Kusasthali.³ Thus it seems that Aruhasthala¹, Darbhasthala, Kausalastha and Kusavati should be identical. The Paumacariya names the king of Aruhasthala as Sukosala, a name similar to the name of the country. South Kosala 1. Historical Geography of Ancient India, p. 67. 2. Ibid, p. 42., 99. 3. V. Pu, 88.198 4. Vide Supra, p. 34.

508 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM is identified with the region comprising the districts of Bilaspur, Raipur and Sambalpur¹. And its capital should be somewhere in that region, with which Aruhatthal may be identified. Kamalasankulapura:-Sumitra, the mother of Laksmana is said to be the princess of the above place (22.107). The Raghuvamsa (9.7), the Padmapurana (Uttara, 269) and the Ananda Ramayana (11.32, 70.71) mention that Sumitra was a princess of Magadha. The Paumacariya also mentions it (2.8). At one place the Paumacariya refers to Kusumanagara (Kusagganagara according to other manuscripts) as the birth place of Lord Munisuvrata (95.35) and at another place is called Kusagranagara which is another name of Rajagrha. Thus Rajagraha, Kusagranagara and Kusumanagara appear to be indentical. The Kamala of Kamalasankulapura probably denotes the flower in general i.e. Kusuma and thus Kamalasankulapura could be identified with Rajagrha. But in the ancient literature Kusumapura occurs for Pataliputra which later on became the capital of Magadha (Historical Geography of Ancient India, p.249). Kalidasa also mentions Pataliputra, Puspapura and Kusumapura as the one and the same place and as the capital of Magadha (India in Kalidasa; (B.S. Upadhyaya) 1947, p. 2). The Paumacariya also specifically mentions Kusumapura (48 83) and it should be a reference to Pataliputra. It seems that the Paumacariya confuses the two capitals of Magadha at two different times in ancient history and thus Kamalasankulapura should be identical with Pataliputra which is mentioned as the capital of Magadha by Kalidasa who states that Sumitra belonged to the Magadha country. Kautukamangalapura (24.2):-Kaikeyi belonged to this place. Aruhasthala and Kamalasankulapura of the Paumacariya are well identified with the birth places of Kausalya and Sumitra as mentioned in the Brahmanical literature. Thus it is probable that Kautukamangalapura of the Paumacariya is the capital of Kekaya country which is mentioned in the Valmiki Ramayana as the country from which Kaikeyi hailed. The Paumacariya locates Kautukamangalapura in the north and Kekaya country is also identified with the present district of Shahpur in the Punjab. The capital of Kekaya country is identified with Girjaka or Jalalpur on the Jhelum³, and so Kautukamangalapura is probably Jalalpur. Kampilya: Rama's teacher Airakucchi belonged to Kampilyapura (25.16). It was the capital of ancient Pancala. It is identified with' modern Kampil on the old Ganges between Budaon and Farrukhabad³ in U.P. 1. The Vakataka Gupta Age; Dr. A. S. Alteker (1954), p. 133. 2. Historical Geography of Ancient India, p. 98. 3. Ibid, p. 92.

GEOGRAPHICAL PLACES, PEOPLES AND TRIBES 509 Rajagrha-Airakucchi himself got his training in archery at Rajagrha (25.18). It is called as Kusagranagara (2.98), Rajapura (2.8) and Magadhapura also (82.46). It was the capital of Magadha country (2.1). It is identified with the present Rajagir in south Bihar.¹ King Srenika is referred to as the ruler of Magadha country (2.15). He was a lay devotee of Lord Mahavira (2.48-49) who spent 14 rainy seasons at Rajagrha². Mithila-Rama married Sita who was the daughter of Janaka, the ruler of Mithila (28.95). Subhadra, the daughter of Kanaka, brother of Janaka was married to Bharata (28.132). It was the ancient capital of Videha country (North Bihar). It is identified with modern Janakapura, a small town within the border of Nepal. Prof. Rhys Davids locates it 35 miles to the north west of Vaisali³.