365bet娱乐

[Full title: Position of Women (in ancient India); (1): Family status or Women inside the House]

In the Paumacariyam of Vimalasuri there is ample material to determine the position of women of ancient India in various fields of 1. Mahabharata, 3.122 f; 1.71,--Vide The Heroic Age of India, N.K. Siddhanta 2. Significance and Importance of Jatakas (1951), p. 112. 3. India in Kalidasa; (B.S. Upadhyaya) 1947, p. 185. 4. Nayakuca. Ch, 3.7.8. 5. The Vakataka Gupta Age; Dr. A. S. Alteker (1954), p. 315. 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid.

350 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM life. Thus their place in family and society as well as in the political and the religious world will be worth studying for deciding their status which is, in one way, the reflection of the state of civilization of a particular age. A. Family status or Women inside the House. Normally a woman in the family was treated under three capacities-maiden, wife and mother. Maiden -As a maiden she is called 'baliya' (balika) 39.109, 'kanna (Kanya) 24.4 or 'kumari' 15.38. The maiden stage of a woman ended with her marriage when she became a wife. As long as she remained a maiden the whole responsibility of her guardianship fell upon her parents for whom it was necessary to make proper arrangements for her nourishment, growth, education and marriage. We are told that for the nourishment of the royal sons, fostermothers were engaged (22.5; 96.11). Then why not the same facilities to the royal maidens? The mention of the 'dhai'=dhatri of a Vidyadhara princess, Srimala (6.165) indicates that the maidens were not neglected in this respect. Srimala's 'dhai' was not an ordinary nurse. She was well-educated (savvatthasatthakusala sarvarthasastrakusala) so that she could look after the physical as well as the mental development of her ward. This instance shows that the parents had equal consideration for their sons and daughters. In the absence of a son the affection and love of the parents increased for their daughter. Thus it is said that when Bhamandala was kidnapped, his sister Sita became the sole object of consolation to her parents who gradually annihilated the sorrow of the loss of their son (soyassa moyanattham 26.98). With the advancement of the age of a girl it was necessary that open air, suitable company and proper freedom were allowed to her for her physical growth. The Paumacariya reveals that Anjana used to play with a ball (kilanti tenduena varabhavane 15.13); Sita used to play in the company of her girl friends (26.103); and the Vidyadhara girls used to play and enjoy water-sports in gardens (8.31, 37). Mere physical nourishment is not enough. With it the mental nutrition is also necessary, otherwise a human being cannot develop his personality to its fullness. The Paumacariya refers to princess Atisundara who was getting her education in the house of a teacher (26.5). The education of girls was manifold. Kaikeyi is mentioned to have studied various subjects of both arts and science, viz. literary-scripts, grammar and prosody; fine arts-music, dance, drawing, painting, dressing,

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 351 perfumery and modelling of leaves; sciences-arithmetic, domestic, prognosticating and distinguishing of gems, flowers, elephants and horses; and many other secular subjects and arts (24.4-8). Being a Ksatriya girl she must have obtained training in military science otherwise how could have she been able to drive the war-chariot of Dasaratha (24.25). One more example of a girl trained in military science is of queen Simhika who courageously fought and defeated the invaders (22.59). All these references at least suggest that girls were not neglected totally but were suitably educated and trained. It is not that only the princesses were favoured with education. The above quoted example of a foster-mother who was 'savvatthasatthakusala indicates that girls other than the princesses, presumably of other classes were duly educated. Sita's dance recital before some monks (39.32), Gandharvi Citramala's musical recital to console Anjana in the forest (17.85), the musical and dance recitals by the daughters of Sugriva to please ditstressed Rama (48.1) and the musical and dance-performances by the wives of Laksmana (110.16- 18) sufficiently prove that it was customany to train girls in the art of music and dance. Kaikeyi's educational qualifications indicate that as far as possible a variety of subjects were taught and manifold training was given to the girls. It must have depended upon the parents as to what training and education should be given to their daughters. viz. pertaining to literature or arts or sciences or profession To attain all that, girls are expected to have enjoyed freedom of movement and their education might have lasted for a considerable the house of period of years. Princess Atisundara's going to her teacher, her co-study there with the son of a Purohita, the development of mutual love between them and finally their elopement all these things tell us that the girls did not remain closed in the houses and they received education up to a considerable age i. e. up to the age of their marriage. That the girls were suitably educated can be carroborated by other evidences. The Jaina Kalpasutra (Su. 209) refers to 64 subjects of study which were thought to the girls. The Brahmanical Apastamba Grhya Sutra¹ states that women were provided with instructions in all the branches of studies. References to Kausalya' and Tara³ as Mantravit while Draupadi as Pandita show that 1. 11:19.12-Vide Indra. 2. Valmiki Ramayana, 2.20.15. 3. Valmiki Ramayana, (Kis.), 16.12. 4. Mahabharata, 3.27,2,

352 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM they were educated in the Vedas and other branches of knowledge.¹ The Kamasutra lays down that the wife of a 'nagaraka' should keep accounts of daily house-hold and it also speaks of 64 subsidiary sciences meant for women and their knowledge in belles letters.2 That the girls were permitted to receive education out side their home is evidenced in the Uttara-Ramacarita which mentions female students studying with brother pupils at the residenee of their teachers.3 The parents took due care in marrying their daughters to proper persons. The preceding section on 'marriage' reveals the following facts in this connection parents did their best in selecting a suitable husband for their daughter. The future happiness and well-being of a girl depended solely upon the type of the bridegroom to whom she was wedded. Therefore the parents first considered the family, character, health and the attainments of the candidate and then married their daughter to him. Maturity and full youth were the proper qualifications for a marriage; the wishes of the daughter were respected; and the guardians readily opposed those who wanted to marry their daughters forcibly. The parents are referred to be in anxiety for the marriage of their daughters (15.36; 35.11). But this anxiety was for selecting proper candidates and not that they considered the presence of a daughter to be a misfortune The comparison of a daughter with the wealth of wicked person, and the disparaging remarks about her at 6 20 really do not undermine her position and abuse the character of girls but they convey the idea that whatever affection and love one may bestow on his daughter 5, after all she will become useful and helpful to some other person. Therefore it is said that to serve some other family is the very nature of the women. And it is true that one cannot keep one's daughter with him for ever. One has to marry and send her to some other house. The Raksasa and Asura type of marriage speak of the kidnapping of and selling of girls to other persons. These practices sound indicent on the part of the kidnapper and the seller. Moreover thay belittle the position of girls in the society. But really speaking these were the prevailing customs of marriage in those days 1. See Indra, p. 140f, 2. Social Life in Ancient India, pp. 175-81. 3: See Indra, p. 134. 4. Sutthu vi rakkhijjanti, thuthukkiyam rakkhiya payattenam/ hohi parasovattha, khalayanariddhi va varakana//-6: 22. 5. Paragehasevanam cicya, esa sahavo mahiliyanam 6, 22

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 353 The kidnapping and purchasing of girls were not done for pushing the girls into slavery or extracting any inhuman service from them. Srivardhita kidnapped the daughter of Srikanta and married her. She became his dear wife and there was no resentment from her (77.85- 97). Kharadusana kidnapped Candranakha and married her. He gave her the due respect a wife should expect (9.12: 44.9-11). The position of girls is undermined when they are enjoyed and left in lurch. But when they are married and given the rights of legally married wives, they are not the losers. It becomes disparaging when the married girls are intentionally put to sufferings by the behaviour of their husbands or the society. Here it will be interesting to note that in some cases the boys of Ksatriya landlords¹ are still kidnapped and married to the Ksatriya girls to escape the burden of dowry and get good bridegrooms. In that case the marriage is regarded as binding by custom and it is given legality. This is just the opposite of kidnapping a girl and then marrying her. The dowry system of today is just like the purchasing of a bridegroom. Now a days that type of marriage is not regarded as illegal. So to say the importance is of particular custom and not the way in which the marriage is performed. Generally marriages of girls were happy. There is no case on record in the Paumacariya to note that any girl was forcibly married by her parents or that the marriage of a daughter performed by her parents proved unhappy afterwards on account of dissension, quarrel or disunion between the husband and the wife or culminated into the complete ruining of the life of a girl. Thus the Paumacariya reveals that a girl enjoyed equal status with a boy in the matters of nourishment, education and marriage. Along with the boys the girls also enjoyed the special privilege of immunity from murder even if they committed some offence². - = Wife The wife was the mistress of the house (gharini 48.64, gehini 8.61 grhini). It indicates her highest authority in managing the the domestic affairs. Patti Patni (14.14) denotes her capacity of partnership with the lord husband and Bharya=Bhajja (103. 7) signifies the right of being maintained by her husband, Pai=Pati (46. 18) means the guardian of the wife and Bhattara-Bhartr (8. 33) denotes the maintainer. These terms indicate that the wife and husband were complementary to each other. The responsibilities of 1. This custom is prevalent in some parts of the Jodhpur Division of Rajasthan. 2. Samana ya Bambhana vi ya, go pasu itthi ya balaya vuddha / Jai vi hu kunanti dosam taha vi ya ee na hantavva //- 35.15. - 23

354 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM both were combined. It was the duty of the husband to look after his wife's well-being whereas the wife was required to assist her husband in discharging his duties to the family. Therefore, it was necessary that the husband accorded due respect to his wife. Thus the Paumacariya reveals that when the wife of Vibhisana requested Rama to become her guest Vibhisana immediately consented to her by taking Rama to his residence (77. 19-20). The wife had equal voice in family-matters. When Kaikeyi wanted to marry Bharata to Subhadra, Dasaratha quickiy favoured her decision (28. 134). Ravana was ready to kill Kharadusana who had abducted his sister, Candranakha, but Mandodari's request prevailed and the former desisted from killing. (9.15) The wife is also called Piya=Priya (37. 32). Kanta - Kanta (105. 97) and Vallaha = Vallabha (68. 39) which indicate that she received love and affection from her husband. The duty of the husband was not only to maintain his wife but to keep her happy. In moments of difficulty he was required to sympathise with his wife. For that she is called Daiya=Dayita (60, 39). It was on account of this relation of love that a husband is found to be fulfilling the pregnancy wishes of his wife (7. 3; 92. 12). Rama readily plays water-sports with Sita when she requests for the same (42. 17). The bond of love were so deep that the husband had to do his best for the safety and happiness of his wife. When Sita is kidnapped Rama gets distressed in her separation (44. 51-66). He undertakes the hazardous task of helping Sugriva in restoring the latter's wife (47. 30). He does not feel happy in absence of Sita though many other girls come to his rescue (47. 57). He rejects all land and wealth which are offered by Ravana (65. 16-19). He feels happy only when he gets back his beloved wife (76. 15) and he did not mind all the sufferings and pains that he underwent in his attempt to regain Sita. The story of Rama is a theme of the faithful duty of a husband to his wife. Sugriva's wife was deceptively claimed by a sham Sugriva. Sugriva became ready to suffer for Rama the pains of tracing Sita because it was his duty to take help from Rama in restoring Tara and making her happy. Sugriva undertook to perform the most severe task of fighting Ravana for rescuing Sita because he was previously helped by Rama in getting reunited with his own wife. Pavananjaya was ready to commit suicide in separation from his wife when he could not trace his exiled wife (18. 14). Purohita Madhupingala (26.18) and weaver Viraka (21.5) were greatly pained when their wives were kidnapped by some ones. They did their best to retrieve them.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS was to 355 She The wife is further called Banaini=Pranayini (15.76). It indicates the duty of the wife that she should love and keep her husband happy. There are various references to love sports and husbands rejoicing in the company of their wives (10.34-35; 70.48-57). Whenever the husband was away the wife used to await his return with enthusiasm and on his return she happily celebrated the occasion (74.32-33). It was a day of great anxiety for a wife when her husband went out for flighting in a battle. The soldier's duty demanded home. Therefore his wife's duty was to his departure from encourage him. Temporarily she may feel desperate but the ultimate national duty before her. Hence a soldier's wife considered his departure as a work of nobility and bravery. encouraged her husband to fight with full life and vigour and considered it better for him to die in the battle than retreat (56.14-12). In times of difficulty a wife helped her husband. When Simhendu was bitten by a snake in the jungle, his wife carried him on her back and got him cured with the help of a monk (77.92). Laksmana's eight Vidyadhara wives, out of their deep affection for him presented themselves at the battlefield to share the fate of Laksmana (72.10). The true affectionate bonds of oneness demanded that the wife should be faithful to her husband. Thus the Paumacariya reveals that Sita despite her persecutions did not like to marry Ravana. She was ready to die for Rama (46.43) but was not willing at all to accept Ravana as her husband. In separation from her husband she gave up food (46.14) and even various royal allurements could not seduce her (69.25-28). Anjana was abandoned by Pavananjaya immediately after marriage on account of some misunderstanding on the part of Pavananjaya but she never forgot her husband. Ultimately Pavananjaya realised the mistake and accepted her. Suddenly another misfortune befell Anjana. She was exiled by her mother-in-law when her husband was away. She suffered a lot but here also she remained devoted to her husband and the day came when she got united with him again. On account of this affectionate bond a wife was duly respected and admired by her husband, therefore she is addressed as Devi (29.13) and Sundari (29.14). Further she is considered to be like a gem (mahila-rayanam 44.62). Here lies the honour of the wife. She enjoyed the special privilege of immunity from being killed by her husband (35.15). It was considered to be a great sin to kill one's wife (candakammakari 14.14). Not only the wife but the woman-class in general was granted this privilege¹ (15.75). Thus some sanctity was associated with the wife and the woman-class. 1. Bahudosana vi dhira, mahilana imam na vahinti.

356 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM It was the consideration of equality that the wife was also consecrated when her husband was crowned as king (85.22-23). In religious matters she was equally respected. It was Mandodari who was given by Ravana the complete responsibility of managing the celebrations of a great religious festival (bharo samappio savvo 66.7). Polygamy was the prevailing custom among the nobles (82.59) and specially the rulers whether they were the Aryans¹, the Raksasas 2 or the Vanaras.³ There are many instances of the Aryan and the non-Aryan kings having one wife only. Candragati had one wife only. She was barren still he did not marry any other woman. In the case of polygamy it was natural that some wives were specially favoured. The chief queen was respected more because she was the most privileged wife. Ravana manifested greater sympathy and consideration for Mandodari than for others before his departure to the battlefield (70. 60). The chief queen used to get coronated (85. 22-23). The multiplicity of wives became the cause of occasional jealousy and rivalry. The elder queen of Dasaratha, on not getting the ablution simultaneously with her cowives, got ready to commit suicide because she thought that she was disrespected (29. 12). There was occasional religious rivalry also. Vapra and Laksmi, the two queens of king Simhadhvaja of Kampilyapura were followers of two different religions. They developed a great controversy over the point of preference in rotating their respective chariots (8. 144f). For that prince Harisena had to leave his house for some time. Kanakodari could not tolerate her cowife's worshipping of the Jina idol, hence she threw it out (17. 62). The above two instances additionally show that the religion did not become a bar in marrying girls following different faiths and usually the life went on harmoniously. Sexual urge, political considerations and social prestige were the chief considerations which encouraged polygamy among the noble classes. Mother: Whenever there is a reference to the parents or the members of the family the mother is mentioned first. It indicates that mothers enjoyed great respect in the society. The naming of the 1. 22.106, 108; 28.71; 91. 12-28. 136; 32-95; 88. 15-17: 21.3; 105.95. 2. 74.12. 3. 19.42; 108.49. 4. 74.33; 15.6; 15.11; 26.83. 5. 28.96. 6. 14. 14.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS - 4 357 children after the names of their mothers prove that the mothers held the position of honour (Somitti 22. 108 for Laksmana; Videha 46. 65 or Vaidehi 100. 28 for Sita). Whenever the sons went out¹ on some important work or renounced the world 2, they paid respects to and took due permission of their mothers. The same was the case when they returned³. The stepmothers were also accorded the same respect. * The mother was given the respect of a teacher along with the father (8. 152). It was considered to be a great sin to kill one's mother (14. 14). A son considered it improper to give slightest pain to his mother or stepmother (8. 152) and for that Harisena left his country and after attaining the competent position, he returned home and fulfilled the desires of his mother. Rama's voluntary exile to the forest was in compliance with fulfilling the wishes of his mother, Kaikeyi, though a stepmother (31.76). Lavana and Ankusa could not tolerate the humiliation of their mother in the form of her exile at the hands of Rama. They took rest only after giving a fight to Rama and bringing him to realise his mistake, though they were opposed by their mother (99. 21; 100. 34). Hanu overpowered Mahendra, the father of his mother to take revenge upon him, because Mahendra had not given shelter to his mother when she was wrongfully exiled by her mother-inlaw (50. 5). Thus the Paumacariya reveals that the mother held a position of honour and respect in the family and the society. was not Widow The Paumacariya reveals that widow-remarriage permitted. It is said that the life of a woman became graceless and unhappy with the death of her husband. Srivardhita's widow-mother is said to be living a miserable and unhappy life (77. 82). Anjana's marriage with Vidyutprabha was not advised, because he was prophesied to be having a short span of life and his early death would have made Anjana's life charmless (pabbhatthalayanna 15. 69). The Raksasa soldiers were gripped with terror when they saw that they would be killed and their wives would become widows (vihavao 59. 17). Mandodari prevented Ravana from killing Kharadusana because his death would have made Candranakha's life quite miserable (vigayasoha 9. 17). Thus it is revealed that the position of widows was not good in the society. This state of widows can be corroborated by other evidences. The Bhagavati Sutra mentions that the widows were not associated 1. 16. 35, 31.95. 2. 3. 135; 13. 51. 3. 79. 28; 8. 276. 4. 31. 101.

358 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM with the marriage ceremony (11. 11. 430). The Kumarasambhava alludes to widows in affliction (4. 1.) Manu does not sanction widowremarriage. He precribas life of complete celebacy for her (9.65; 5. 151, 160) and permits her to earn her livelhood by means of the noble handicraft. Vatsyayana also does not allow remarriage but permits her to live as a concubine¹. Dependency of Women;-Widowhood brought about a great contrast in the life of woman. Similarly permanent separation from husband was also a great misfortune for woman. The Paumacariya reveals that all the queens of Dasaratha were pained to learn that their husband would leave them for ever by renouncing the world (31. 58). woman When Anjana was exiled by her mother-in-law on the false allegation of infidelity she went to her parents to seek shelter bu her parents and brother did not show syampathy for her. Being hopelessly afflicted with the sorrow of helplessness, she cried out that at was respected by her kith and kin as long as she was not abandoned by her husband; her prosperity, happiness and esteem were great as long as she remained affectionate to her husband; otherwise she became despicable and helpless². On account of such a position of woman, it was natural that she should regard permanent separation from her husband as the most uuhappy and miserable affair. With the separation from or the death of her husband the happiness of a woman did not vanish altogether. She saw a ray of hope in her son, because he was considered to be her true support in absence of the husband, Thus the Paumacariya reveals that Anjana on being neglected by her kith and kin, had to lead a woeful life in the forest, still she saw a ray of consolation in the hope of soon getting a son. On the happy occasion of the birth of a son to her, she could not hold back from saying that she was still living on the earth only with the hope and grace of her son³. But a woman's condition becomes pitiable if she loses her son also. Then her very existence becomes burdensome. Thus the Paumacariya reveals that Mandodari who was already suffering from the sorrow of her husband's death, suddenly swooned to learn that her sons were renouncing the world. She had also cried out "How sinful am I that the sons who are the only support of a mother 1. Chackladar. p. 183 2. Tava sirisohaggam, tava ya garuyau honti mahilao / Java ya pai mahaggham sinchapakkham samuvvahai-17. 34. 3. Tujjha pasayena aham, puttaya jivami natthi sandehoj paisayanavippamukka, juhapanattha mai ceva//17. 93.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 359 on the death of her husband are also abandoning me"". The same state of helplessness is evidenced by Aparajita when her son, Rama goes into exile². Kaikeyi had demanded the coronation of Bharata for the same reason. Bharata wanted to renounce the world along with his father. Kaikeyi could not face this unhappy situation. She got gripped with severe agony. She thought of a plan to avert the situation. She demanded the coronation of Bharata so that she would not be separated at least from her son³. Dasaratha himself told Rama that Kaikeyi was likely to die in separation from Bharata. The above evidences prove that women lived in dependency. After the loss of her husband, her son could prevent her from falling victim to a miserable life, but the real happiness of her life depended on her husband, therefore we find that a woman regarded her husband as her lord and address the husband as 'Svamin' and 'Natha'.