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The marriage was an important event in the life of a person. With it commenced the 'garhasthya' life, the foundation of the family life. Therefore, necessary consultations as regards the 'kula', 'carita', 'vaya' and 'rupa' i. e. family, conduct, age and charming physique were made before contracting a marital alliance, but rigidity in the field of inter-caste and inter-racial marriage was not observed. 1. Naya, I, P. 20. 2. Bhag. Sut, 11. 11.529. (Abhaya.) See Adipurana, 14.165. It mentions majjana, mandana, stanya samskara and kridana nurses, 3. See Infra.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 341 Guardian's Responsibility:-The act of marriage is often denoted by the term 'paniggahana' (7.75;24.33;98.56). It was a symbol of 'sva-karana" which entailed the transfer of the authority of the parents over the girl to the husband and for that the offering of the bride to a bride-groom is indicated by the word 'dinna' (15.38). Thus the responsibility of marriage lay with the guardians. King Mahendra was worried for the marriage of his daughter, Anjana (15.36). Vanara Sugriva was in anxiety for getting a suitable husband for his daughter Padmaraga (19 37; See also 51.18; 36.11). In these cases the initiative is taken by the fathers of the girls and they get success in negotiations. Sometimes the father of a boy took initiative. Vidyadhara Puspottara had demanded the sister of Vanara Srikantha for his son (6.6). In the absence of the father, the elder brother was responsible for the marriage of his younger ones (6.6; 9.28, 50). In the case of Lavana and Ankusa the two sons of Sita, their guardian king Vajrajangha arranged their marriage (98.1). In the absence of any guardian the suitor himself made demand for a bride from her guardian (10.4-8). Thus the Paumacariya reveals that generally the guardians settled the marriage of their sons and daughters. In the case of contest type of 'svayamvara' marriage the father of the bride proposed a feat and in the selection type too it must have depended upon the father of the bride to invite or not a to invite a particular candidate. Further the accompanying of the parents with the promising condidates in a 'svayamvara' indicates that the consent or the wishes of the parents prevailed in the 'svayamvara' marriage also. Kaikeyi's initiative and then Dasaratha's consent to the marriage of their son, Bharata with Subhadra the daughter of Kanaka, the brother of Janaka of Mithila (28.131) indicates that generally the father and the mother both were unitedly responsible for the marriage of their children. One thing is to be noted that though the marriage of the children dependend on the wishes of their parents but in no case the marriage was a failure. Wishes of the Children :-It is true that the parents settled the marriage of their children but the wishes of the latter ware not altogether neglected. King Mahidhara betrothed his daughter to some other person when he lost all hopes of getting Laksmana who was greatly cherished by his daughter. But when Laksmana went there per chance Mahidhara gladly gave his consent to his daughter to marry him. (36.9-40). Vidyadhara Candragati tried his best to accomplish the wish of his adopted son Bhamandala who wanted to marry Sita (28.9-75), 1. Pradanam svamya karanam'-Manu, 5.152.

342 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM but in vain. Vanara Sugriva, in accordance with the wishes of his daughter, Padmaraga married her to Hanumat (19.40). It was because of the request of Vidyadhari Padma that her father withdrew from attacking Srikantha and allowed her to marry Srikantha (6.24-26). There is a single instance when king Acala forcibly married his son to many girls in order to prevent him from renouncing the world (82.69). Due Consultations:-Guardians of the brides held due consultations and after having considered various factors, they selected bridegroom. King Mahendra took advice of his ministers and on the ground of merits he rejected others and selected Pavananjaya for his daughter, Anjana (15.14-27). Similarly Maya (8.3) and Ravana counselled with their ministers before settling their daughters' marriage (12.1). Whenever the father was unable to decide for himself, he sought help from others. Thus when Tara was simultaneously demanded by Vidyadhara prince Sahasagati and Sugriva, her father took advice of a monk. He predicted short span of life of Sahasagati. Then the choice fell to Sugriva, (10.4-8). Considerations in Marriage-alliance:-The status of family, conduct. good-looking features and parity in age were the main considerations for contracting marriage-alliances. King Prthu was not willing to offer his daughter to Ankusa, because the former was quite ignorant of the family of the latter (na ya najjai kulavamso 98.8). It was on account of the noble family and noble qualities (sundarakula sambhno gunehi duram samuvvahai 8.6) of Ravana that Maya married his daughter Mandodari to him. King Puspottara was requested by the envoy of Kirtidhavala to marry his daughter to Srikantha because Srikantha belonged to 'uttamakula' and possessed 'uttamacarita' (6.17) as well as 'uttamarupa' (6.18). Ravana married his daughter to such a person who belonged to a noble family 'visuddhakulavamsa' (12.2), who was dear to people (vinaya gunadharo logassa ya vallaho 12.4) and possessed decorum as well as good qualities (lakkhanovaveo 12.3). Minister Sumati had advised Mahendra to marry Anjana to Vidyutprabha because he possessed both 'guna' and 'rupa' (15.21). Vajrajangha was in search of such a bride for Ankusa that she could stand equal to Ankusa in 'rupa' (ruvena anusariccham 98.3). Pavananjaya was preferred to others as a bridegroom of Anjana because he surpassed even the cupid in beauty and health (ruvena jovvanena kamassa sirim vidambei 15.27). Therefore, it is said in the Paumacariya that both the parties should have parity in status, character and physique.¹ 1. Uttamapurisana jae samjogo hoi uttamehi sam am, ahamana majjhimana ya sariso sarisehi va hojja-Paumacariya, 6.19,

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 343 Among the ruling classes chivalrous qualities, power and other attainments were also considered in selecting a bridegroom (jovvanabalaviriyasattisampanno 12. 3, vijjasahassadhari atuliyabalavikkamo 8. 6). The contest type of 'svayamvara' marriages indicate that bold and gallant bridegrooms had their success. Further the Paumacariya reveals that the guardians did not select such candidates who were likely to die (10. 7) or renounce the world at an early age (15. 24). There are instances of suitors who were rejected on account of their being quarrelsome, hostile and polygamous (15. 12-18). It is corroborated by Jataka No. 200, that candidates having noble birth, sound character, good health and due reverence for elders were considered to be suitable bridegrooms. Parity in Age: Parity in age was also an important factor. Therefore, the terms like "donni vi vayasanuruvasohaim eyana samaoga-6. 21' and 'anusarisa jovvananam samjoo 15.22' have been used. No specific age of marriage is mentioned, but the terms like jovvana 90. 3', 'navajovvanujjatao-77.53; 'navajovvana sampanna 8. 2, navajovvana cincaiya-15. 13; 'jovvannapunna 12. 1', 'laliyajovvanapunna 8. 160'; 'udarakilanajoga 98. 2'; and 'raigunasaravahantio 77. 53' denote that marriage was performed when the candidates had attained full youth, adolescence and capacity to understand well the various aspects of love. Sita was betrothed to Rama when he had already completed his education and also defeated the Mlecchas in a battle (27. 41). Lavana was married after having completed his education (98. 2). Ankusa had already fought a battle when his marriage took place (98. 56). Ravana married Mandodari after having acquired many supernatural powers which must have entailed a severe penance on his part (7. 130; 8. 21), and to endure that hardship he must have been a grown young man. Hanu completed his student-career, helped Ravana in defeating Varuna and thereafter he got married (18. 56; 19. 32; 34. 40). Vanik Dhanadatta was betrothed to Gunamati but the latter's mother secretly rebetrothed her to Srikanta. At this breach of contract Dhanadatta's younger brother became furious and killed Srikanta (103. 15). This incident shows that when Dhanadatta's younger brother was able to kill a man, Dhanadatta must have been adolescent. Kaikeyi had completed her education and she had exhibitted valorous traits while helping her husband in overpowering the disgruntled candidates before her marriage took place (24,2f). All these instances of the people of different races and belonging to different strata prove that marriage was performed when the candidates were quite mature in age and were able to shoulder the responsibilities of household life. However the marriage of Laksmana with an

344 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM Manorama was solemnised when a long time had passed after his return from Lanka (Ch.90). It shows that in cases of rulers, the Paumacariya does not refer to any child-marriage. Other factors-Prophecies and political motives also played an important part in bringing about marital-alliances. Rama's marriage with the daughters of Gandharva (51.15-17), Laksmana's with Visalya (64.18) and Cakravartin Harisena's with Madanavali were performed in accordance with the prophecies. It was on account of political considerations that the defeated kings married their daughters to the conquerors. Thus king Simhodara of Ujjeni married his daughters to Laksmana (33 139). Vijayaratha, the son of king Ativirya married his sisters, Ratimala and Vijayasundari to Laksmana and Bharata respectively (38.1,7). Similar were the cases of the Vidyadharas, Vanaras and the Raksasas. Defeated Vidyadhara king Samudra married his four daughters to Laksmana (54.42). Discomfited (ksatriya king), Maruta married his daughter to Ravana (11.100). Vidyadhara king Indra was advised by his father to marry his daughter to Ravana for the same political reason (12.78). Routed king Varuna married his daughter to Hanumat (19.32). King Vajrakarna of Dasapura offered his daughters to Laksmana because he was rescued by Laksmana from the tyrrany of king, Simhodara (33.138). Site of Marriage cermoney:-Generally marriages were solemnised at the residences of the brides. It did not matter whether one hailed from the Aryan (Ksatriya 28.130; 21. 44; 24. 33), Vanara (6.217; 19. 40) or the Raksasa family. (8. 56, 62; 12 8). Among the Raksasas marriages were performed at the residences of the bridegrooms also (8. 9; 7. 75)¹. Sometimes the marriage was performed at quite a different place. The marriage of Anjana and Pavananjaya took place on the banks. of the Manasa lake (15. 40). Rama and Laksmana during their exile married various girls at Lanka, though they belonged to different places (77. 51). The Paumacariya reveals that marriages were performed at auspicious time (nakkhatte sohane 5. 27; sunakkhatta-karanalaggammi 15. 95), Other Jaina literary sources corroborate the fact that sometimes marriages were solemnised at the residences of bridegrooms also. Pottila's marriage with Teyaliputta (Naya, 14. p. 149) and that of Mahabala with eight princesses are such examples. 1. This custom is still privalent among the Gonds. Vide Nayakumara cariu p, xxvii 2. Bhagavati Sutta 11. 11. 430 See Nayakumara cariu 1. 17. 1 and 5. 2,13-14.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 345 parents Types of Marriages:-It has been already stated that coatracted the marries of their children. Whenever the father offered his daughter to a suitable candidate, it fell under the 'prajapatya' type of marriage. The betrothal of Sita with Rama (27. 41), the marriage of Anjana with Pavananjaya (15. 38), that of Mandodari with Ravana (8. 18) and Kekasi's with Ratnasrava (7. 72) fall under this group. Marriage alliances made on politica! considerations can also be put under this head. This type of marriage was widely prevalent in those days. 2 There were when cases parents were not consulted and on account of mutual love, the concerned candidates formed their own. as Gandharva¹. The wedlocks. This type of mrrriage is termed wedlocks of Ravana and many Vidyadhara girls (8.38), Vanara Hanu and Raksasi Lankasund ari (52.2) and Vidyadhara Srikantha and Padma(6.9) are the instances among the non-Aryans. This form of marriage was prevalent among the Aryans also. The unions of (Brahmin) Airakucchi with the daughter of his teacher (25.22)and that of Purohita Pingala with the princcess of krapura (26.8) come under this type. Rama and Laksmana also performed love marriages. Laksmana performed love wedlocks with princesses Kalyanamala (34.3; 77.48) and Vanamala (Ch. 36). Padmaraga, out of many portraits, selected that of Hanumat. Her father Sugriva invited Hanu and married her to him (19.40). This is also a Gandharva-vivaha according to the definition "the father of the girl without consulting his own wishes gives away his daughter to a person whom the daughter likes and who reciprocates her sentiments" given in the Mahabharata.3 Vanamala and Kalyanamala were married by their fathers in accodance with their wishes, hence their marriages can be assigned to this class. There were occasions when girls were forcibly carried away and married. This type of marriage is termed as Raksasavivaha. Ravana married many girls seizing them by force (akkamiya vikkamenam 9.51). His sister was kidnapped and married by Kharadusana (9.12). This type of marriage was largely prevalent among the Raksasas. The Aryans are also found to be following this practice. Brahmin Srivardhita 1. The Kamsutra speaks very highly of this type of marriage in which the basis is mutual love which is the correct foundation and goal of marriage (3.5. 29-30). 2. Manu regards this type of marriage legal in the case of Ksatriyas (3,26). 3. Mahabharata (Adiparva), 44.10- Vide Hindu Social Organisation, p. 178, by P. N. Prabhu (1954).

346 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM kidnapped a princess (77.85) and made her his wife. The Ksatriyas demanded girls in marriage and on refusal they defeated the fathers of the girls concerned and forceed them to marry their daughters to them. Such instances can be put under the Raksasa type of marriage. Laksmana's marriage with Vidyadhari Manorama (90), Ankusa's with Kanakamala (98) belong to this type.¹ On some pecuniary benefits Ratnabha, a merchant lady betrothed her daughter, Gunamati to Sresthin Srikanta, though she had been already betrothed to Dhanadatta by her father (103.12). This is an example of Asura-vivaha². But in this case the results were fatal and the marriage could not be performed. The Jatakas (219 & 458) corroborate this type of marriage in which a wife is purchased. In the Raghuvamsa (11.39) of Kalidasa there is an indirect reference to shis type of custom. Svayamvara: The Paumacariyam reveals two forms of 'svayamvara' marriage, viz., the selection-type and the contest-type. In the former case many candidates are invited by the father of the bride and the bride then choses any one of her liking as her husband. Kaikeyi's (24.10) marriage with Dasaratha, Subhadra's (29.136) with Bharata, Khecaris Candramukhi's with Lavana and Mandakini's with Ankusa this category. to (106.9), Vidyadhari Srimala's with Vanara Kiskindha (6.159) and Khecari Ahalya's (Ahalla) with Anandamalin belong On such occasions bitterness was created and the disgruntled candidates made a row and sometime waged a battle (6.176; 24.19; 106.14). It will not be out of place to mention here that the 'svayamvaras' of two sisters Candramukhi and Mandakini were held simultaneously at the same place and the 'svayamvara' of Subhadra was arranged immediately after that of her cousion sister Sita. The former was a selection-type and the latter a contest-type. In the contest type candidates had to perform the proposed feat and whoever became successful, won the hand of the bride. In the case of Sita the bow was to be strung up (28.104) while in the case of Jitapadma the 'satti -sakti' hurled by the father of the bride was to be withstood (38.25). In the former case many candidates assembled on the proposed. day and tried their might while in the latter case one by one came and went away unsuccessful. Days passed and when Laksmana happened to come there he emerged successful. 1. Manu approves of this type of marriage for the Ksatriyas -3.24,26. 2, Manu gives his consent to this type of marriage for the Vaisyas and the Sudras, 3.24. 3. It was a mock 'svayamvara' in the case of Subhadra because it was presettled that Subhadra should choose Bharata.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 347 In the contest type of 'svayamnvara' wishes of the bride did not get any conssderation. It was the father who proposed the test and offered his daughter to the successful candidate. He had the choice of not inviting the candidate who was not liked by him. Therefore, it can be affiliated to the Prajapatya type of marriage. But in the selection type the bride was free to select the candidate of her own choice and it must have depended on the individual candidate whether to attend the ceremony or not. Thus the willingness of both the parties was the deciding factor and it can be associated with the Gandharva type of marriage¹. Marrying Maternal Uncle's Daughter:-There are some instances of sons-in-law who address their fathers-in-law as 'mama' (24. 22; 38. 46). It reminds us of the custom of marrying the daughter of a maternal uncle and this custom was so widely prevalent that 'mama' became almost a term of address to the father-in-law. Laksman's wedlock with Visalya who was the daughter of the brother of Kaikeyi was of this type though Laksmana was a stepson of Kaikeyi (64. 17, 45 ; See also 41. 56, 59). This type of marriage is corroborated by an instance in the Nayakumaracariu (7. 9. 9). It is still prevalent in South India. This custom is popular among the Gonds 2. The Avasyakacurni (II. p. 81) mentions that this type of marriage was prohibited in the Uttarapatha, Manu (11. 171) does not approve of this type of marriage but Apastamba³ is said to have enunciated this custom. Polygamy and Dawry:-Polygamy was quite sufficiently prevalent among the rulers whether they were the Ksatriyas (10. 36; 91. 12, 17; 107. 4; 98. 2), Raksasas (74. 12) or the Vanaras (108. 49). dowry. There is no reference in the Paumacariya to the custom of demanding Inter-caste marriages:- The Paumacariyam clearly reveals that in those days inter-caste marriages did take place. It has been already discussed that the 'kula', 'carita' 'rupa' and 'ayu' were the main factors upon which depended the marital-union. There is no instance to show that only the Varna was considered as primary factor in forming wedlocks. The following examples of 'anuloma' and 'pratiloma' marriages indicate that inter-castemarriage was prevalent. Purohita Pingal's love marriage with a princess (26. 8) and (Brahmin) 1. See The Age of Imperial Unity; B. V. Bhavan (1953), p. 560. 2, Vide Nayakumara cariu p. xxvii. 3. Ibid.

348 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM Srivardhita's Raksasa-marriage with princess Sundara (77.85) fall under 'anuloma' type. A Brahmin woman though abandoned by her husband was accepted by king Kararuha as his honoured wife (77. 75). King Svayambhu and some princes (103.97) did not hesitate in demanding the hand of the girl of a higher caste (Brahmin girl Gunamati) These two instances are of 'pratiloma' type. Inter-racial Marriages:-As regards inter-racial marriages there were no restrictions among the non-Aryan people. The Aryans also did form wedlocks with the non-Aryans. Inter-racial marriages were very common with the non-Aryans. Raksasa Ravana married many Vidyadhara (Mandodari 8.18, and others 8.38;9.51), Khecara (953), and Vanara (Sriprabha, the sister of Sugriva 9.50) girls. Khecara or Vanara Hanumat married Vidyadhara (Satyamati 19.32), Raksasa (Anangakusuma 19.34 and Lankasundari 52.21), Vanara Padmaraga and 19.41) Kinnara (Harimalini 19.36, (19.36) girls. Vanara Sugriva's wife, Tara was a Khecari (10.2). Vanara Kiskindha was the husband of Vidyadhari Srimala (6.175). Khecara Pavananjaya formed marital-union with Vidyadhari Anjana (15.38). The non-Aryans did like to form wedlocks with the Aryan girls. Ravana kidnapped Sita and requested her to marry him. He himself married the daughter of king Maruta of Rajagrha (11.100) and many other Aryan girls (Vijjaharamanuyanam¹ kannao......parinei Dasanano 9.51). Vidyadhara Candragati demanded Sita for his adopted son Bhamandala (28.56). Raksasi Candranakha wanted to marry Rama (43.45). The Aryan people did not hesitate in forming. wedlocks with the non-Aryan girls and the kings made them even one of their chief queens. Rama had married three daughters of Vidyadhara Gandharva² (51.25) and one more Vidyadhari, namely Sridama (90.28). Laksmana married four daughters of Khecara Samudra³ (54.42) and also Vidyadhari Manorama (90.28). Vidyadhari Manorama was one of the eight principal queens of Vasudeva Laksmana (91,16) while Vidyadhari sridama was one of four chief queens of Rama (91.18). Lavana and Ankusa married Khecara girls in a 'svayamvara' type of marriage (106.9). King Sumitra was married to Vanamala by the latter's father who was a Bhilla, also called as an Anarya chief of the Mlecchas (12.13-14). Other literary evidences also corroborate inter-caste marriages. According to the Mahabharata sage Cyavana married princess Sukanya 1. Here the reference to the 'manuyanam' is to the Aryan girls. 2. See Paumacariya, 51. 46, 3. Ibid, 54-66.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 349 (anuloma) and Dusyanta married Sakuntala presumably the daughter of a priest (pratiloma)¹. The Buddhist Jataka No. 250 refers to a marital-union between a Brahmin and the chief wife of a king. Shri Gokuldas De observes that caste rigidity was not observed because the term 'sama-jatibhariya' is not used in verses and its use in prose betrays its later age in the Jatakas. The word 'sadisi' i.e. 'the same type' denoted age 'tulavaya' and not the caste. The 'varnavarah' as mentioned in the Malatimadhava is a reference to an inter-caste marriage³. Prince Nagakumara is said to have married dancing girls and his father supported him saying that a woman-gem could be accepted without any consideration of family (akulinu vi thirayanu laijjai). Certainly these are mere literary evidences, but the actual events of the time of Vakataka-Gupta age show that 'anuloma and pratiloma' marriages took place in the society. A record describes the marriage of a Brahmin groom with a Ksatriya bride as perfectly in consonance with the rules of Srutis and Smrtis. Vakataka king Rudrasena, a scion of an orthodox Brahmana family married Prabhavati Gupta of the Vaisya Gupta family. The Kadamba rulers who were Brahmanas by caste had married their daughters to the Vaisya Guptas." Manu (3.4) and Vatsyayana (Kamasutra, 3.1.1) declare that marriage should be performed in the same 'Varna'. Still we find that caste-flexibility is maintained and therefore the 'anuloma' (Manu, 3.12- 13) and the 'pratiloma' (rajna, 1.93) marriages are recognised by the Smrtis also. As regards the inter-racial marriages we find that the Iksvaku Brahmana kings accepted a bride from the Saka royal family of Ujjayini and the Satavahanas had done the same in an earlier period. The preponderance of inter-racial-marriage-instances in the Paumacariya point out the miscegenation of various tribes going on in those days and certainly since before the Vakataka-Gupta age it has been an important way by which foreign tribes have been absorbed in Indian society.