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[Full title: Position of Women (in ancient India); (2): Social status or Women outside the House]

A very intensive trait of ficklethe character of woman. Inherent traits of Women :-A mindedness (capalata) is associated with Thus Sita though faultless yet at the time of being abandoned in the forest tells Krtantavadana that women are fickle-minded (94.74). On account of her frailty a woman loses her far-sightedness and becomes the slave of her natural instinct. Kaiheyi's demand of coronating Bharata was of this type. She was promised a boon and it was duly fulfilled by Dasaratha with the consent of Rama and Laksmana. But Kaikeyi had not that wisdom and farsightedwhat to think in advance as to would be its consequences. She wanted to keep Bharata along with her and by the pretext o the boon she became successful. When Rama and Laksmana went into exile their mothers got distressed and even Kaikeyi could not bear the agony of her co-wives. Therefore, she had to send Bharata and had to proceed herself to call them back. But the promise was promise, the words were words and Rama did not return inspite of Kaikeyi's entreaties. There she had to admit her fickle-mindedness and lack of foresight. ness 1. Bhattaravirahiyae, putta alambanam mahiliye, honti iha jivaloe, catta tehim pi pavah am 75.SO. 2. Puttaya kim me pariccayasi......... hosii puttalambo, paroho ceva sahae 31.96, 97; paiputtavirahiya iha kam saranamaham pavajjami 31.99. 31.63-64. 5. 4. Tassa viogammi kegai marai 31.75. 5. Mahila sahavacavala, adihapehi sahavamailla, tam me khamahi puttaya, jam padikulam kayam tujjha -32.51.

360 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM The instances of rivalry among the queens already quoted above exhibit the trait of jealousy for one another. The defect of greediness is also found with women. Ratnaprabha, on account of being allured to the wealth, overrode the decision of her husband and secretly betrothed her daughter to another person though she was previously betrothed to Dhanadatta by her husband (103.12). It was with the motive of covetiousness that the mother of Ahideva and Mahideva wanted to poison her sons for securing a gem from them (55.41). Weaknesses: -Certain inherent weaknesses to which the human beings are prone to fall victims are well depicted in connection with the woman-class. Thus the Paumacariya reveals that women fell victims to manifold vices on account of being motivated by sexual urges. There are examples of women who failed or got success in their attempts to commit adultery, but in both the cases the results proved to be dangerous. How a woman, on being overpowered by the sexual urge, falls victim to baser instincts and unholy ways can be evidenced in the character of Candranakha. She angrily searches for the culprit who killed her son, but as soon as she observes Rama and Laksmana, she gets enamoured of their handsomeness. She forgets her filial love for her son and adopts deceptive ways to win the heart of the princes. She assumes the form of a beautiful girl, fabricates that she is an orphan and invites Rama to marry her (43,36-44.39). But when her request is rejected, her heart boils with the feeling of revenge. She does not hesitate in reporting false things to her husband alleging that she was manhandled by Rama and Laksmana. Thus she paves the way for the battle of Kharadusana and Laksmana and becomes an indirect cause of the kidnapping of Sita. Nalakubara's wife, Uparambha did not hesitate in bringing about the downfall of her own husband by giving out the secrets of the strategy of war to Ravana, merely for the sake of establishing sexual relations with Ravana who was the very enemy of her husband. Ultimately her husband was defeated by Ravana but she was admonished by the latter for her immoral avertures (12.53-71)." Queen Lalita entrapped an innocent handsome. Brahmin for committing adultety with him, but as soon as she was caught by the king, she betrayed the Brahmin and the king inflicted. a severe corporal punishment upon the concerned Brahmin (81.11). The wife of a minister failed in seducing a king, but the result was dangerous. The apprehending minister set fire to the palace of the king. The king had to flee away with his family for safety and had to fight a battle to reoccupy his capital (104.120). Sakha, the

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 361 wife of a Vipra could not meet her paramour at the appointed place, but unfortunately the brother of that Vipra was killed, who happened to go to that place (82-47). Sridama, the queen of Kulankara become successful in establishing illicit connection with a Purohita and for that she become merciless to the extent of causing the murder of her husband (82.37). Queen Kiranamandala, though warned by her husband, did not prevent herself from meeting her paramour again. And for that she was exiled by her husband (101.60). The wife of an envoy caused the death of her husband at the hands of a Vipra who was her paramour. Further she did not hesitate in hatching a plot to get her sons murdered, but the plot was unearthed and the Vipra was killed by her sons (39.42). The wife of a Grhapati got her husband tied to a tree in the forest at the hands of her Vipra paramour and freely enjoyed with the latter (48.65). In addition to these instances of women who belonged to different strata of the society, there is an allegorical reference to a corrupt woman (padutthamahila 15.66) who would freely move from house to house. There is a further mention of a harlot (svairini 5.105) who became the cause of enmity between two friends. These evidences support the disparaging remarks made about the character of woman by the author through the mouths of Ravana and Rama.2 But the statements are are circumstantial. Ravana invites. calamity by his own misconduct. His brother and sons get captured by the enemy, his mission fails in sending back Rama without Sita and Sita also does not like to become his wife. Thus the only course left open to him was that of the war. At such a time Ravana gets desperate and blames the woman-kind. It was on account of his being motivated by the sexual urge that Ravana did the ignoble deed of kidnapping Sita and for that Ravana is further found to be blaming himself and confessing his guilt³ (69.32-33). Thus Ravana being compelled by the situation made such derogatory remarks about women otherwise Sita was so chaste that she upheld the glorious position of women. Rama accepts Sita after killing Ravana. He is not suspicious of her virtue. 1. Narayassa mahavihi, kadhina saggaggala anayabhumi, Sariya vva kudilahiyaya, vajjeyavva havai nari-69.34. Sa Padhamaditthasanti amaena va majjha phusai amgaim, Sa paramasattacitta, ucciyanijja iham jaya 69.35. 2. Ahava ko juvainam, janai cariyam sahavakudilanam, Dosana agaro cciya, jana sarire vasai kamo. 93-35. Mulam duccariyanam, havai ya narayassa vattani viula, mokkhassa mahaviggham, vaijeyavva saya nari-93.36. 3. Niyayakulam uttamam kayam malinam...vammahaaniyattacittenam 69.32. Dhiddhi aho akajjam...ihaniya mayanamudhenam--69.33.

362 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM It is the public censure which creates in his mind an apprehension. about the character of Sita. It is on account of public censure that Rama expresses disparaging words about women. Laksmana on the other hand supports Sita. He charges people with wickedness and blames them for making situations against women (94.6). Otherwise why should Rama later on admit before Sita that she is chaste and he abandoned her only to convince the people (101.37; 102.37-38). It should not be forgotten that the above mentioned human weaknesses are not peculiar to women alone but are found with men also. Male-Excesses and Women's Lot-Man's polygamous habits show that he is more unsteady in love. Further the special instances of not only his infidelity but of his excesses over the fair sex can be mentioned as follows. It has been already stated that Ravana abducted Sita though she was the legitimate wife of Rama. King Kundalamandita snatched away the wife of a Purohita and harassed him (26.12). King Madhu kidnapped treacherously the wife of his vassal (105.94). Brahmin Kayana abducted the wife of another Brahmin, Atibhuti (30.61). Sahasagati wanted to estabiish sexual relations with Tara (47.14-19), the wife of Sugriva and some Mlecchas forcibly removed away a woman (30.118). These instances clearly indicate how the male-class also fell victim to sexual urges. Further in the cases which are mentioned above in connection with the infidelity of women, the corresponding males also are responsible for the guilt. In those cases there were both the unmarried and the married males and as far as the married males are concerned they can be charged with unfaithfulness to their own wives, Svayambhu forcibly raped a virgin girl despite of her opposition (103.100). We find that the rulers, on being refused by the parents of the girls, attacked them and after defeating them married the girls. These cases are not of infidelity but those of male-excesses from a certain point of view. Divorce -Further we find that women are dishonoured, exiled or divorced on mere suspicion. Anjana was exiled by her mother-in-law in absence of her husband. She did not find place even at the house of her parents, because she was suspected to be infidel (17.7-20). A Vanik woman Mitramati was exiled by her father-in-law for the same reason. In the above two cases their husbands were the cause of their pregnancies, hence ultimately Anjana and Mitramati were united with their husbands, but for the time being they had to suffer. Sita was exiled by Rama on a mere doubt that she might not have remained chaste on account of her long association with Ravana. She was accepted

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 363 when her chastity was proved before the public. It means that a satisfactory proof was required on the part of the women to prove her purity and on production of such a proof she was accepted by her husband. The chief queen Simhika was dishonoured by her husband merely on the doubt of her character and that doubt had arisen on account of her open fight in a battle against the enemy-kings when her husband was away from the capital. When her purity was proved she was restored to her original status (22.62,70). Those who were proved to be unchaste were permanently divorced by their husbands. Brahmani Agnila Agnila was abandoned by her husband on account of her unchastity (77.74). Similar was the case with the queen Kiranamandala who inspite of being warned by her husband did not give up her bad habits (101.60). The Narada Smrti says that a wife who commits adultery should be divorced (12.90,92). Agnila is said to have been later on accepted by king Kararuha as his wife (77.75). It indicates that the infidel wives were divorced and it was just possible that such women could find place in the harems of kings. This was the lot of the woman-class but the male-class remained unaccused or undivorced for infidelity. May be it, but the maleclass was equally responsible. Varahamihira has equally blamed men for vices. He in his Brhatsamhita (Ch.74) rebukes males for their sexual urges while praises women for their forbearance. He says that men talk of love to their wives while they go astray outside. He further remarks that women have more qualites than men possess. Consciousness of Self-Respect :-The Paumacariya further reveals that women were not altogether submissive. They were conscious of their self-respect and on occasions they duly exhibited it. It was due to circumstances or the conditions of the society that even married women were kidnapped and they had to become the wives of the kidnappers. Similarly they had to suffer exile, dishonour and abandonment of the slightest doubt on their character and they were unable to oppose such impositions. But it was not true everytime. There were occasions when their self-respect revolted against these severities and they emphasised that they were not merely the commodities of market. Thus the Paumacariya reveals that Candrabha, the wife of a ruler, who was deceitfully separated from her husband and was forcibly made his wife by an overlord Madhu, did not hesitate and feel shy in rebuking Madhu for enjoying another man's wife

364 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM when a similar case of 'paradarika' was referred to her by Madhu (105.105-6). Sita takes great courage in emphasising her self-respect. In course of her discourse with Vajrajangha she abuses Rama for his improper act of abandoning her when she was quite innocent (uttamakulassa loe na ya evam khattiyassa anusarisam 95.45). At the time of her ordeal Sita rebukes Rama on his face by calling him a cruel, low and vulgar person (natthi nitthuro anno payayapuriso 101.31). After her being proved as chaste Rama begs her pardon and is ready to accept her but Sita who had suffered so many ups and downs in life, considers it quite immaterial to reunite with her husband. She gives up the worldly life and joins the ascetic-order for her spiritual emancipation (102.36-46). Outdoor Activities:-After examining this general position of woman in the society, a survey of their activities outside the house becomes necessary as the true evaluation of their status can be made after seeing as to how far they were free to take part in the outer circle. The Paumacariya throws fairly good light on this aspect. It reveals that they were not debarred from following the pursuits of the highest status whether social or political. Servants: She lowest position of woman is inferred from the word 'dasi' (99.18) alluding that there were slave women who were dependent on their master. Then there are references to maid-servants who were engaged by the noble and well-to-do families for the performance of various types of services. The Paumacariya referes to the ladyattendants in general Kinkaranari 4.60) of Cakravartin Bharata. Cetis and Dutis are found to be attending upon and carrying the mentioned to be orders of princesses, queens and kings. Cetis are accompanying the princesses to gardens and carrying messages (6. 11; 88.9). The courtezans also employed Cetis (5.33). Uparambha's love message was conveyed to Ravana through a Duti (12.53). Dutis also worked as flatterers to please their masters by performing dances and music. On such occasions they are called as Catukaris (46.78-80). Women Dvarapalis are referred to be working as the guards of the palace of Sita (28. 4). Women were engaged by the royal house for cooking purposes also (Suyarini 77. 109). Artists: Then there were the independent professional lady musicians, singers and dancers who catered to the amusement of the public. They used to give perormance on some happpy social occasions (36. 39) or marriage-celebrations (106. 16). They are refered. to as coquettish girls (vilasinijana). They were the persons of high training in the fine arts of amusement.

SOCIAL CONDITIONS 365 Public Women: Then there were the public women who (Vesa= Vesya 33. 06) used to entertain the willing citizens. Well-to-do persons. used to visit them aud spend lavishly on them. Sometimes the visitors turned peniless on account of this vice and did not hesitate in committing burglary for fulfilling the desires of their favourite prostitutes. These were the common harlots who would have been accessible to even ordinary citizens. Among them there were some who were called Ganikas (courtezans). They enjoyed higher status and respect in the society on account of their personal attainments. The Paumacariya refers to a courtezan playing dice with a minister (5. 32). The context of the above reference indicates that they occasionally helped in detecting the cases of theft and reported them to the king. Two princes are mentioned to have fought a battle for the possession of a certain courtezan (15. 19). A Brahmin dhurta (82.87) who was a veritable master of arts and sciences, who was the leader of all the crafty and knavish persons, who lived on royal favour and was invincible in the game of dice and was fabulously wealthy, had connections with two coutezans. Thus noble and highly accomplished persons were the visitors of these courtezans. Kautilya (11. 27) lays down rules for appointing a state Ganika, and mentions her rights and duties and the protection the state should give to her. It was her coveted beauty and high accomplishments which won for her such a great position. All harlots could not win the title of Ganika. It was conferred on one who was trained and educated in 64 arts and 64 fine manners of pleasing a lover.¹ The Natyasastra reveals that she was a person of great education and culture². . Nurses: The profession of higher grade followed by the women was that of serving as foster mothers or nurses (Dhais). The noble and royal families used to engage them for the nourishment of their sons and daughters. We are told that five nurses were appointed for Lavana and Ankusa (77.11). They were treated like mothers and were accorded high respect by the children fondled by them. They were highly educated persons and looked after the proper mental development of the children belonging to noble families. The 'savvatthasatthakusala' adjective used for a Dhai denotes that in one way they were the primary teachers of the children of the noble class (6.165). When the 'svayamvaras' were held they led the princesses in the assembly of the prospective candidates and introduced the latters 1. Social Life in Ancient India, p. 198. 2. 17.37-38.

366 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM to the brides by announcing their respective qualifications and the status of their families (6.165). This function of the Dhais indicates that they were well informed persons and enjoyed a high social status among the rulers. Their functions suggest that they were employed by those who were financially very sound. Thus they whould have obtained high salaries and privileges from their employers. Doctors: It seems that the women followed the medical profession also. Visalya who was a princess was called for to treat Laksmana who had been wounded in the battlefield by the sakti of Ravana. She seems to be an expert surgeon having a number of lady assistants following her (64.21). It indicates that female physicians and surgeons were available in the society.