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TEMPLE ARCHITECTURE The Hindu Temple is the pride of Indian architecture and the art of supreme perfection. The majestic and marvellous temples in Southern and Northern India are truly astonishing. Their architectural technique and superb perfection are also remarkable. The remains of the Hindu temples in and after the Gupta period, have exhibited the developed form, but it is evident that long before the Matsya Purana and the BrhatSadhita, Hindu temples had not only originated but had their various forms. Among the Puranas, the Matsya Purana, the Agni Purana, and the Visnudharmottara Purana have given very valuable information about the features and characteristics of the temples and also the various types of temple architecture. The Bhavisya Purana and the Garuda Purana have also contributed to the subject. Prasada is the common word used to denote a temple. The Matsya Purana devotes two Chapters (Chs. 269 and 270) to temple-building. Here 'Prasadas' are described with their architectural details such as plans, measurements and classifications. The Hindu temples were usually laid on the plan of squares. The process of drawing the initial square is described in the same way throughout the Vastusastra. Four kinds of proportionate measurement of the Prasada are given in the Matsya Purana (Chapter 269). (1) The first plan is according to the division of the area of the Prasada into 16 squares. This is the simplest form

- 148 and consists of four internal quares. In the centre, the Garbha consisted of four parts and this again is divided into twelve parts. This is the first or general ground plan (Samanya) according to the Matsya Purana. In this plan the height of the super-structure, the Sikhara, is twice the width of the Prasada. In front of the two Garbha sutras, the mandapa "This 48 should be erected. Dr.Stella Kramrisch remarks, excessive height in this type is rare in preserved temples of any age. Sikharas of this proportion or having even a greater height such as the Amrtesvara temple at Singhanpur are rare In wooden temples this excessive height might have been normal." (2) The second type is proportionate to the height of the Linga. Here the architectural module belongs to the pedestal of the Linga or the image. In half of the pedestal the foundation is to be laid. The height of the temple top should be twice that of the foundations, and the height of the circumambulating passage a quarter of that of the top. The front mandapa should be as high as the passage for circumambulation; and the entrance to the mandapa should be half its height. In this plan the Sikhara is divided into four parts of which the two lower are designatedas Manjari, half of its height is that of Sukanasa. Above the Manjari is the Vedi. Its height is 1 part and so is that of Kantha and Amalasaraka. (3) The third is according to a division of the area of the Garbhagrha into nine squares. The top should be twice the height of the walls which should be divided into two parts and Sukanasa should be made in one of them and Vedi (a quadrangular 50

- 143 spot) in the third part. The Amalasaraka and Kantha should be made in the fourth part and the projecting parts (Kapala) should be made twice the length. It should be decorated with floral designs. 51 (4) In the fourth kind of the plan the width of the Prasada is to be divided into three parts; and the outer portion of the above dimensions, the Rathanga, is to be designed and the Nami is to be one fourth wide. The Garbha is made twice the size of the Nemi. Ine walls are to be of the dimensions of Garbhamanae. And the top should be twice the height of the walls and in the fifth part of the temple doorway should be made. Chapter 259 of the Hatsya Purana mentions two olasses of temples, one with curvilinear sikhara and the other with a storeyed super structure. In the latter type twenty different types of temples are named. In the drhat Sahhita the type with the curvilinear Sikhara finds no mention but twenty types of storeyed temples are described. 52 Mr. V.R.R. Dikshitar is of opinion that a style of architecture corresponding to that furnished by the black Pagoda at Konark in Orissa as given by Fergusson is referred to in the Matsya Purana. (Chapter 269, 18-19). The Sikhara is divided into four parts and the last two are the 53 Sukenasa. Sukanasa (a nose or a beak of a parrot) is a projection from the main body of the Sikhara. The third part is the Vedika, the attenuated portion of the Sikhara which

- 150 leads from the vertical wall of the Prasada in an ascending curve towards the highest point of the finial. The upper part is surmounted by an amalasara, a massive circular stone supporting a vase called Kapala generally known as Kalasa. 54 The Agni Purana Chapter 42, first gives the general plan which prevails in most places about the rearing up of the divine edifices. This plan is according to a division of the Ksetra into sixteen equal rectangles. The four central squares are to be filled with iron and the remaining twelve being left for the walls to be raised upon. The height of the wall should be twice that of the length of the plinth. The cornice should begin at this point and should be raised all around the edifice. The equal opening having the same width should be left on the two sides for exit. The ground elevation is to be made at first equal to the length of the roof or twice that length as the laws of beauty may require. The Mukhamandapa or the entrance hall should be constructed and adorned with pillars. It should be of the same length as or longer than the principal palace by the length of pada. The anti-chamber known as Paschat-mandapa should be built some eighty-one padas or steps from the site of the principal habitation. 55 The other plan in the Agni Purana, Chapter 42 is with reference to the idol. It should be proportionate to the height of the image. The blessed stool or Pindika is to be constructed of the proportionate measure with the image. The adytum (Garbhagrha) will be half the Pindika, the walls shall have the width equal to the length of the adytum and the

- 151 height will be equal to the length of the wall. The Sikhara should have double the height of the wall and the Mukhamandapa shall be measured quarter of the height of Sikhara and shall be in the front. The eighth part of the adytum should be set apart for opening exists, for litters etc. The Agni Purana refers to the construction of the curvilinear Sikhara Dr. Stella Aramrisch observes - by means of a division in geometrical progression by four-fold division (caturgunasutra). Dr. Kraurisch says, "this particular method which is indicated here (Chapter 42, vv 15-17) underlies the process by which the batter of the curved outline of this type of Sikhara is determined. The Agni Purana passage speaks only of the four sutras, which are to be separately drawn from the base of the Sikhara up to the other end, the Skandha for the 'purpose of the Sikhara' ("Sikharartham hi sutrani catvari vinipatayet"). These vertical parallels are intersected at certain regular intervals by horisontals of which only one is given in the Agni Purana at the height where the Sukana sa is to the and. There a lion's figure should be carved. In the Agni Purana, its position marked the middle of the Sikhara. A lion's figure carved in the round, juts out from above the Sukanasa is found on the temples in Orissa. *57 66 58 Further general plan is described in Agni Purana In this plan, it is said that a square plot of ground (Asetra) should be divided into four equal rectangular divisions. The breadth of the walls should occupy a quarter part of the

- 152 entire area of such a square. The Garbha or the adytum should comprise eighth part of a square plot. The pedestal measuring pada only. As an alternative, the pedestal should occupy the whole of the adytum, where the ground would be divided into five such chambers or divisions. In some cases the site of the temple would be divided into six equal rectangular chambers, and walls should be built to extend over one such entire division in breadth. The height of the temple should be double or greater than twice the breadth by a Pada, or triple the breadth of the same. The entire altitude ('Jagati Vistarah') in certain instances is made greater than twice the breadth of the temple by half a Pada measure, or equal to the half or the third part of the entire ares of the ground. 'Jagati' means earth and covers the raised grounds, platform or terrace from which the temple raises. In the later usage it is the name of a horizontal moulding only. The width of Jagati varies from one third to four times the width of the Prasada. Such wide terraces or plinths are in existence in 59 the temples at Bhitargaon and Deogarh. Chapter 47 of the Garuda Purana deals with the essential features of a divine temple. The Purana says that a plot of ground should be divided into sixty four equal rectangular divisions. The adytum should be comprised of four such rectangular divisions and the doors of the temple should be made to number twelve, The walls of the edifice should be raised upon such forty eight quadrilateral divisions. In height the plinth should be made commensurate with the length

- 153 of the platform at the top of the ground elevation and twice taat measure above that. The Purana gives fourfold division of the Sikhara like the Agni Purana. The Sikhara should be divided into four equal parts over the third part, from the bottom of which the Vedi or the top of the platform should be constructed and on the top of the fourth part, the ornamental figure should be placed which is generally made to edge the 60 entire height of the temple from the bottom. In the alternative the site should be divided into sixteen equal parts over the four central parts on which the adytum of the temple should be raised. The walls of the edifice should be raised upon twelve such rectangular divisions or chambers and the height of the walls should be made commensurate with the length of four such parts as are compatible with the laws of proportion. The height of the terrace or the pinnacle should be made to measure twice the height of the wall and the open verandah or the platform all round the temple should be made of a quarter part of the height of the terrace in breadth. These are the essentials of the 62 general plan. Another plan is in proportion to the lengths of the images of the deities. The pedastal should be made commensurate with the length of the latter and the adytum should be made twice that length. The walls should be of equal length with the latter, while the plinth should be made half as much broad as the adytum. The pinnacle should have twice the height of

the plinth. 62 - 154The description of the third plan as given in the Garuda Purana gives us the idea of a different ('aparan') structure. The ground on which the image of the deity would be installed should be tripled in measure, which would thus give the dimensions of the exterior. The area of the temple must be lese then that of the ground on which the same should be erected. The Nemi (the circumference, a surrounding verandah) should measure by e pada in all directions. ("Nemih paden vistirna prasidasya samantatah"). The area of the adytum should be made half that of the Nemi. The walls should be made equal in height to the length of the adytum and the pinnacle (Sikhara) should be twice as much high as the height of the wall. 63 The Bhavisya Purina (I. Ch.130) mentions a plan according to the division of the area of the Prisada into 64 squares. According to the Bhavisya Purina, the plan of the Prasada should be divided into sixty four Padae. There should be one door in the exact centre. The height of the Prasada (Devayatana) should be twice of its breadth. Kati should be one third of its height. The Garbha should be half of its circumference (Vistara) and the walls should be made around it. The length of the door should be 1/4 th of the Garbha and the height should be double its length. 1/4 th of the height of the door is the length of the sides and the Udumbara (thresh-hold). 64

- 155The Visnud harmottara Purana, III, Chapter 88, (Samanya Prasadalaksana) explains the general characteristics of a temple. According to the Purana the ground area of the temple should consist of 64 equal squares. The doors should be in the middle of the temple facing the direction evenly ('sama'). The height of the door is double its width. The Kati should extend over the door. It should be less by one-eighth of the measurement of the door. to be one-third of the height. So also Kati and Manjari. Thus, a temple consists of three equal parts Jagati (base) is the socle, the 65 The perpendicular walls and the superstructure or roof. Garbhadvara should be less by one-fourth of the main door. The wall of Garbhagrha should be less (in thickness) by one-eighth of the wall of the temple. Its height should be one fourth of the height of the temple. The Jagati-passage should be in a part of a Kati and the Sopana should be in the middle and less by one-eighth of the measurement of the passage. The steps should be neither very narrow nor very wide. The classification of the temples is based on their shapes, the number of storeys and spires, divergent dimensions and plan. Twenty types of temples are described in the Matsya Purana and the Bhavisya Purana. The Agni Purana and the Garuda Purana spreak of the forty-five types of temples and the Visnudharmottara Purana has described hundred and one types of temples. The Matsya Purana describes twenty temples and gives

- 166 - 66 their names, description of architectural details and measures. "The game classification and names are found in the BrhatSamhita(LV) and also in the Chapter of an Nagara Prasadas in the Samarangana Sutradhara, (LXIII. 1-34). The same varieties (of twenty types) were considered as representative of the Hindu temples by the middle of the sixth century. But in the same text, at another place, some of these temples are described amongst other temples of a particular local school, that of Halva."67 The twenty temples in the Matsya Purana. (1) Meru has 100 cupolas (Sriga), 16 storeys (bhumika), (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) many variegated steeples (Sikhara) and is 50 cubits broad. This is the largest temple. Mandara has 12 storeys, many steeples and faces (anana) and is 45 cubits broad. Kailasa has nine storeys, many steeples and faces and is 40 cubits broad. These three names are those of the mountains and denote the largest temples. They have the greatest number of storeys or bhumis. Vimanachhanda has eight storeys, many steeples and faces and is 34 cubits broad. Nandivardhana has seven storeys and is 32 cubits broad. Nandana has seven storeys and is furnished with Visana or horns and is 30 cubits broad.

- 157- (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) Sarvatobhadra has five storeys, 16 corners with various shapes, is furnished with art-gallaries (Citrasala) and is 30 cubits broad. Valabhienhandaka has five storeys, many steeples and faces and is 16 cubits broad. Vrsa is circular all round and without corners and resembles the height and length of the bull. It has two storeys, 5 cupoles and is four cubits broad at the central hall. Sinha is shaped like a lion and is adorned with the famous Candrasala and by the width of the front neck, is six storeys high. Gaia resembles the elephant and has many Candrasalas. Aumbha resembles the water jar, has nine storeys and five cupolas (andas). Gaja, Sinha, Kumbha, and Valabhicchandaka are sixteen cubits broad. Samudgaka has sixteen sides around, two Candrasalas (13) of the two sides and two storeys (14) (circular in shape). (15) Padma has three storeys, 16 corners, a variegated steeple and is 20 cubits broad (according to Br. Samhita it is likened to the petals of a lotus flower). Garuda has the bird-design around, seven storeys, three Candrasalas and is eight cubits broad and has

- 158- 86 storeys. Here Bhumika should be taken in the sense of some other thing such as compartment. According to the Brhat-Samhita, Garuda denotes a structure resembling a Garuda bird i.e. provided with architectural members very similar in appearance to the wings and tail of this bird, and has seven 68 storeys. (16) Hamsa is 10 cubits broad. (17) Yartula is 20 cubits broad and circular. (18) (19) (20) Caturasra or square (Catuskona in the Brhat-Samhita). Astasra-Octagonal (eight cornered). Sodasasra-Sixteen-cornered. According to Varana-mihira Meru, Mandara, Kailasa, Vimana and Mandana are hexagonal (sixsided) in shape. No hexagonal temples are preserved. The Mundesvari temple in Orissa (built before 634 A.D.) and also the Sankaracarya temple at Srinagara (8 th Century) are examples of Astasra 69 (Octagonal) temples. Sodasasra ra or sixteen cornered temples are extremely rare. Structures of these various types are not found in the extant remains but we can't say that they did not exist. They must have perished. The Bhavisya Purana has similarly described twenty types of buildings. 70 The Agni Purana describes names, classes, shapes and description of forty-five kinds of temples. The Purana makes five divisions depending on five shapes (Planes), each including

71 - 159 nim kinds. Vairaja, Puspaka, Kailasa, Manika and Trivistapa are the five Vimanas of the gods and are considered as five primary shapes. The first class is characterised by a square (caturasra) shape, the second resembling the first in structure which is rectangular (Ayatasra), while the third and the fifth classes are respectively built circular (Vrtta) and octagonal (Astasra), the fourth class being constructed in a way so as to resemble the segments of a circle, i... elliptical (Vrttayata). Each of the above classes of temples is divided into nine sub-divisions thus giving rise to forty-five different structures of temple. The nine forms of Vairaja are Meru, Mandara, Vimana, Bhadra, Sarvatobhadra, Caruka, (or 'Rucaka') Nandika, Nandi, Vardhamana, and Srivatsa. The nine forms of Puspaka are Valabhi, Grharaja, Salarha, Visala, Sama, Brahua-mandira, Bhavana, Prabhava, Sivikavesma. The nine divisions of Kailasa are Valaya, Dundubhi, Padma, Mahapadna, Vardhinya, Usnisa, Sankha, Kalasa, and Khavrksa.Manika includes Gaja, Vrsabha, Haksa, Garutmat, Rksanayaka, Bhusana, Bhudhara, Srijaya and Prthvidhara, Trivistapa includes Vajra, Cakra, Svastika, Vajra-Svastika, Citra, Svastika-Khadga, Gada, Srikantha and Vijaya. Dr. Stella Kramrisch opines that these names are those of Nagara and Lata Prasadas built in a particular region, Lata or Gujarata. 72 The Garuda-Purana has the same five shapes, five

- 160 classes and forty-five kinds of temples. But the wording is somewhat different, 73 The Visnudharmottara describes 101 varieties of temples, 100 in Chapter 86 and one 'Sarvatobhadra' in Chapter 87. Among these 100 temples Himavat seems to be the main type which is the representative of ancient Indian temple. The other ninety-nine varieties are its modifications and variations. The height of the temple is equal to that of Jagati (base) which is of three stages of equal height. The Kati should be half of the neight of the temple. The portion above the Kati is divided into three parts viz. Sikhi, Amalaka and Sikhara. These three parts should be decorated with rows of lions. The height of the door should be twice its width. On the door there should be Candrasala or dvarasobha (torana). Over the first compartment there should be beautiful amalasaraka. There should be four doors and four Candrasalas around the temple. This is the description of a beautiful Himavat temple. 74 The general description of the temple (Samanya Prasada) in Chapter 88 and the above description of the Himavat temple represents the shape of the temple at the time of the compilation of the Purana 1.e. about 7 th Century A.D. - the age when the fully developed Hindu temple emerged. of this general type 100 different shapes are described in Chapter 86. One temple only viz. the Sarvatobhadra forms the subject of Chapter 87.76 From this, it is obvious that this unique 75

161- 77 temple has been given special importance. It is said that one who builds Sarvatobhadra temple becomes 'Cakravartin'. The sight of it destroyes all evils and bestows bliss. In the Sarvatobhadra temple Jagati is four sided and on it twenty four Garbhagrhas are placed. Naturally, the mumber of temples are 24. At the back of these garbhagrhas and higher than Jagati should be made an enclosure. The whole construction is of the shape of the Mekhala and in its four directions a flight of steps should be placed. On the top of the Mekhala and at each of the two sides of the flight of steps three temples should be placed. The first one is Garbhamandira without the Mekhali. In the middle is Samanya and the third one is without the Mandapa. On its side two temples of the Himavat variety without the Mekhala should be made. At the base of these steps two temples are to be placed on two sides. These pairs of temples having no pavilion, are called Devakula Danstras of the Samanya variety. Similarly at the corner on the top of the Jagati a devaiula should be placed. Here the central temple with the pavilion should be erected. The number of pavilions is four. They have Sikharas. In the corners of the central temple and at the junctions of the pavilions pairs of temples should be placed. Here each pavilion should be beautiful with three doors and in the fourth door a Garbhagrha should be placed. The gateways of the pavilions should be decorated with pillars. The number of the Sikharas in this temple is nine. of these eight are equal in height and the ninth is higher. The central

- 162Sikhara should be decorated with various figures. It should neither be skull-shaped nor pointed like a sula. The remaining eight Sikharas should have Kuharas and be equipped with Jalas and Gavaksas. The Sikharas at all places should have amalasarakas, Chakras, Patakas and Dhvajas. This temple rising high looks like being crowned in the sky. Dr.Stella Kramrisch has compared this Sarvatobhadra variety with the Avantiswami temple in Kashmir and Keshava temple at Somanathpur in Mysore. Dr. Ararisch has also made the eight fold division of these hundred temples viz.(1) Himavat (2) Srigavat (3) Valabhi (4) Malyavat (5) Linga (6) Caturasra (7) Grha and (8) Kailasa, and tried to identify and compare the architectural remains with these temples. 78 Dr. Tarapada Bhattacharya says: "Almost all the 20 Nagara temples are mentioned here. There are in addition several names similar to those of South Indian temples. I therefore, think the list to be mainly that of Nagara temples of a later period. #79 Dr. Priyabala Shah has classified some of these temples on the basis of their shapes Nagara temples - Inanda, Grha, Valabhi Dravida temples- Alaka, Ekabhumika, Catuskakah, Tribhumi, Digbandha, Dvibhumika, Nandana, Pancatah, Pariyatra, Meru, Mandara, Vimana and Suktimat

163 Vesara temples - Nandi, Vrsa, Samudga, Ghata and Padma. 80