Formal Education System in Ancient India
by Sushmita Nath | 2016 | 63,563 words
This page relates 鈥楨ducation in the Epic Period鈥� of the study on the (formal) education system in Ancient India with reference to Vedic and Buddhist period, investiging educational institutions and universities which existed during this time. Professional educational methods were found in ancient Sanskrit literature (Brahamanas, Dharma-Shastras, Puranas, Jatakas, etc.), including rules, ceremonies and duties of pupils in ancient India.
Go directly to: Footnotes.
Education in the Epic Period
The 搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺 and the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 were the two main epics of ancient India. The value of these two epics was considerable indeed because these two epics give us a very clear idea about the highly developed culture of ancient India. But these two epic do not contain much regard to education. These epic mainly deal with action not in the thought. So purely educational evidence of the Epics is however very meager. But when we going through the subject鈥搈atter of the 搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺 and the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 then we find that the two epics also give us some very useful information bearing on educational ideals and institutions.
Admission and Period of Studentship:
During the age the pupils鈥� first introduction to education was started through the 痴颈诲测腻谤补尘产丑补 ceremony. This ceremony was known as 鲍辫腻办谤补尘补 ceremony in Epic age. After the performance of this ceremony the pupil started their Vedic studies. In the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 笔腻峁囜笉补惫补蝉 started their Vedic studies after the performance of 鲍辫腻办补谤尘补 or 痴颈诲测腻谤补尘产丑补 ceremony[1]. But the pupils鈥� actual education was started after the performance of Upanayana ceremony. In the 搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺, 搁腻尘补 and his half brothers started their education after the Upanayana ceremony[2]. In the 艢丑腻苍迟颈 parva[3] of the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 mentioned that after the performance of Upanayana ceremony the 叠谤腻丑尘补峁嘺 boys started their Vedic education. 顿峁泃补谤腻蝉迟谤补, 笔腻峁囜笉耻, Vidura also started their education after the performance of Upanayana ceremony[4].
During the age the period of studentship was also spread over the twelve years. The 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补[5] mentioned that up to the age of twenty five years the 叠谤补丑尘补肠腻谤颈 could continue his studies.But the 狈补颈峁ａ弓丑颈办补 叠谤补丑尘补肠腻谤颈s devoted their entire life to pursuit the knowledge. For the pursuit of knowledge the ideal student named 鲍迟补峁卥补[6] who spread his major part of life in his preceptor鈥檚 house.
Conditions and Duties of studentship:
In the earlier period aforesaid that after the Upanayana ceremony the student used to live under the roof of his preceptor. It was their first condition of studentship. But now situation was something changed. Some students lived with his preceptor and some student under the appointed private teacher after the Upanayana ceremony. In the 膧di parva of the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补[7] we get the following account of the education of the Kauravas and the 笔腻峁囜笉补惫补蝉, 惭补丑腻迟尘腻 叠丑墨峁补 brought to his place the Vedic scholar 顿谤辞峁嚹乧腻谤测补 and entreated him to educate his grandsons in proper conduct and warfare. So during the age it was not mandatory account that everyone should live with his preceptor鈥檚 house. But majority of the students had their schooling under the discipleship of Gurus residing with them in their abodes. This was the general practice. 搁腻尘补 after the Upanayana lived with his preceptor and finished the education[8]. 惭补丑腻迟尘腻 叠丑墨峁补, Guru 顿谤辞峁嚹乧补谤测补, King Draupad also lived in the house of his preceptor for proper training[9].
As regards the duties of the students, the Epic period also mentioned that, an ideal student always served for his teacher. He observed all the rules and conduct of his teacher. He always got up early in the morning and slept in after his preceptor. Every morning and evening he had to performed the 厂补苍诲丑测腻 adoration. With the clean body he started his daily courses. He used to beg alms for his preceptor and look after his house and cattle. He also controlled over his senses and avoided mado, moha and 肠补辫补濒补迟腻. He used to avoid honey, perfume, garlands. He also avoided the female company. Through the proper 辫谤腻测补艣肠颈迟补 he purified his soul. These were the some important duties and restrictions of studentship of Epic age. Without these duties and restrictions none can able to receive the proper training or education[10].
Subjects of study:
The 搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺 and the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 give the detailed syllabus of various subjects. During the age Veda, 膧nv墨峁k墨, 痴腻谤迟迟腻, Danda峁嚹玹i, were the main subjects of study. Besides these many other subjects like 驰耻办迟颈艣腻蝉迟谤补, 艢补产诲补艣腻蝉迟谤补, 骋补苍诲补谤惫补艣腻蝉迟谤补, 笔耻谤腻峁嘺, 滨迟颈丑腻蝉补, 膧办丑测腻苍补, and 碍补濒腻惫颈诲测腻 were included in the curriculum[11].
During the age specialization of any subject was compulsory because all the castes groups had their special curricula appropriate to their occupations. The 叠谤腻丑尘补峁嘺s were the priest. They studied all the subjects. But they were specially trained in the Vedas[12].The 碍峁迟谤颈测补蝉 were the rulers. They had compulsorily to learn Military education, the art of archery, 鈥�Dhanurveda鈥�. The 搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺 contains a reference to the military training of King 顿补艣补谤补迟补鈥檚 sons during their boyhood[13]. Like that in the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 we also find the military training of Kauravas and 笔腻峁囜笉补惫补蝉. Guru 顿谤辞峁嚹乧腻谤测补 imparts education to Kauravas and 笔腻峁囜笉补惫补蝉 in a very short time[14]. The 痴补颈艣测补蝉 were studied all the 痴腻谤迟迟腻艣膩stras[15]. But when we discuss about the education of princes then we find that a person is also able to qualify in diverse course of subjects.
In the 搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺 we find that 搁腻尘补 and his brothers were well versed in all the 艢腻蝉迟谤补蝉. Specially 搁腻尘补 was well versed in the Veda, 痴别诲腻峁単补蝉, Dhanurveda, 狈墨迟颈艣腻蝉迟谤补, Vartta, 滨迟颈丑腻蝉补, 笔耻谤腻峁嘺, Military arts, Poetry, Philosophy, 础谤迟丑补惫颈惫腻驳补, riding on horses and elephants. He was also an expert charioteer[16]. He was mastered in the use of all kinds of missiles and weapons that were known as 痴补濒腻 and 础迟颈惫补濒腻[17]. He was also profoundly proficient in Music[18].
In the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补[19] we find that the 笔腻峁囜笉补惫补蝉 studied all the Vedas, various 艢腻蝉迟谤补蝉, N墨iti, 滨迟颈丑腻蝉补, 笔耻谤腻峁嘺, Archery, and different types of military arts. 膧肠腻谤测补 顿谤辞峁嘺 taught them Dhanurveda in all its branches[20]. Arjuna taught Abhimanyu and other princes on the same line[21]. So it is clear the Epic introduced the variegated curriculum of studies. But the main emphasis was laid down on the study of Military sciences.
Methods of Study
During the age the methods of study were varied from class to class. But recitation and recapitulation were very popular during this period[22]. Every day students鈥� were required to spend a part of their time in the school in jointly reciting a portion of work they had committed to memory. As a result of this training the memory of average student was very highly developed. During the age 罢补辫补蝉测腻, 厂惫腻诲丑测腻测补, Debate and discussion were still popular[23]. Besides this storytelling and listening the learned person was also very popular during the age. In the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补[24], the learned 鲍驳谤补艣谤补惫腻 went to the 狈补颈尘颈蝉腻谤补苍测补, the hermitage of 艢补耻苍补办补, where he delivered the lectures in front of 艢补耻苍补办补鈥檚 disciples about the Brahmatattva. Practical examination was another method which was very popular during the age. We find in the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补[25] that 顿谤辞峁嚹乧补谤测补 frequently took the practical examination, to test the students鈥� quality of education.
Position and Duties of the teacher:
The teacher also possessed the highest moral and spiritual qualifications during the age. The teachers鈥� were generally called the 膧肠腻谤测补 and Guru. We find the three types of 膧肠腻谤测补 during the age viz., Chandovit 膧肠腻谤测补, Vedavit 膧肠腻谤测补, and Vedyavit 膧肠腻谤测补. The Vedavit 膧肠腻谤测补 was the chief among the two types of 膧肠腻谤测补s鈥�[26].
Various descriptions were met with in the 搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺 and the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 of celebrated Gurus like 痴补蝉颈峁ａ弓丑补, 痴颈艣惫腻尘颈迟谤补, Sand墨pani, 顿谤辞峁嘺, Parasurama and 碍补峁噕补. In the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 we find some stories like鈥搕he story of Ekalavya, the story of Upamanyu, story of 膧谤耻峁噄 and Veda[27]. From these stories we gathered that the teacher received high reverence during the age.
As regards the duties of the teachers鈥� in the Epic also mentioned that the teacher was the guardian of the students鈥� life. He had immense moral responsibility. He builds the life of his student. The 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补[28] mentioned that that the parents only create the body of his child. But the preceptor gives new birth of his student.
Educational Institution:
The educational institutions during the Epic period were mostly correspondence with earlier period. But during the age hermitage education was very popular. In the hermitage the students used to have very congenial atmosphere for learning. The Epics tell us numerous hermitages where pupils鈥� from distant parts of the country gathered for instructions.
A full-fledged hermitage had several departments, which were enumerated as follows:鈥�
- 础驳苍颈蝉迟丑腻苍补鈥擳he place of worship.
- Brhama 蝉迟丑腻苍补鈥擳he place of study Veda.
- 痴颈峁ａ箛耻 蝉迟丑腻苍补鈥擳he place for teaching 搁腻箩苍墨迟颈惫颈诲测补.
- Mehandra 蝉迟丑腻苍补鈥擬ilitary section.
- Vivasvata 蝉迟丑腻苍补鈥�Astronomy section.
- Soma 蝉迟丑腻苍补鈥掷别肠迟颈辞苍 of Botany.
- 骋补谤耻岣峚 蝉迟丑腻苍补鈥掷别肠迟颈辞苍 dealing with Transport and conveyances.
- 碍腻谤迟颈办别测补 蝉迟丑腻苍补鈥擬ilitary organization[29].
Some of the famous hermitages during the Epic period were:鈥�
1) The hermitage of 痴腻濒尘颈办墨: The famous hermitage of the 痴腻濒尘墨办颈 was situated in 颁颈迟谤补办奴迟补 hill on the bank of the river 罢补尘补蝉腻[30]. Many students resided in this hermitage to become proficient in 艢腻蝉迟谤颈办 knowledge. The twins sons of 搁腻尘补, 碍耻艣补 and Lava were taught the Vedas, 痴别诲腻峁単补蝉 and the art of music in this hermitage[31]. The beauty of this hermitage was so admirable that many venerable guests like to come in this hermitage again and again. It was the most famous hermitage during the Epic period.
2) The hermitage of 叠丑补谤补诲惫腻箩补 : The hermitage of 叠丑补谤补诲惫腻箩补 was situated near the confluence of the river Ganga and Yamuna[32]. 峁歴i 叠丑补谤补诲惫腻箩补 was master in 补艣迟谤补惫颈诲测腻蝉. That is why, his hermitage was basically popular for military education. King Drupada and 顿谤辞峁嚹乧腻谤测补, the son of 峁歴i 叠丑补谤补诲惫腻箩补 were received education in this hermitage[33].
3) The hermitage of Agastya : The hermitage of Agastya was situated in 顿补峁囜笉补办腻谤补峁噛补[34]. Several students used to live here to study the various 艢腻蝉迟谤补蝉. The 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 refers to that king 驰耻诲丑颈峁ａ弓丑颈谤补 visited this hermitage[35]. In this hermitage the students performed the different types of 驰补箩帽补蝉 and continuously study the Vedas, 痴别诲腻峁単补蝉 and different other subjects.
4) The hermitage of 惭补丑补峁涐梗颈 Kanva: The hermitage of 惭补丑补峁涐梗颈 碍补峁噕补 was situated on the bank of the river 惭腻濒颈苍墨[36]. There were many small hermitages situated on the bank of the river 惭腻濒颈苍墨 but 惭补丑补谤峁 碍补峁噕补鈥檚 hermitage was one of the best among them. The whole environment of the jungle tract around the 惭腻濒颈苍墨 used to be odorous with the blazes of the sacrificial altar and resonant with the chanting of the Veda mantras[37]. In this hermitage there lived eminent scholars of Veda, Jurisprudence, Philosophy, 厂尘峁泃颈 and so on.
5) The hermitage of 艢补耻苍补办: The hermitage of 艢补耻苍补办 was situated in 狈补颈尘颈峁 forest[38]. Thousand of disciples lived with Saunak. The presiding personality of 艢补耻苍补办 was called Kulapati. It was his designation because thousand of disciples used to study under the roof of sage 艢补耻苍补办. The wide ranges of subjects were studied in this hermitage. This hermitage was also the holy spot of pilgrimage.
Besides these hermitages many other hermitages like the hermitage of 痴测腻蝉补, Vai艣i峁ａ弓ha, 痴颈艣惫腻尘颈迟谤补, 笔补谤补艣耻谤腻尘补, Dhaumya and 碍腻艣测补辫补 also were held in high esteem during the age.
Education of Women:
The education of women was still extensive but we find divergent views regarding the education of Women. Some authorities expressed that women were not found adequate opportunity during those days. But when we discuss the overall status of women then we find some changes. But with regard to the educational status of women in the 搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺 and the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补, we find the name of several erudite scholars. This throws light that during the age women also received education. Parents were eager to educate their daughters so that they might emerge as learned scholars. 厂颈迟腻, the wife of 搁腻尘补 was an erudite scholar. After the marriage she continued to have her lessons on 艢谤耻迟颈 from famous 叠谤腻丑尘补峁嘺s. During her exile period she could pride herself on being 笔补峁囜笉颈迟腻[39]. Like that many other women were highly qualified during the age. They were 碍补耻艣补濒测腻, 罢腻谤腻, 艢akuntala, Draupadi, 碍耻峁囜弓墨, G膩nd膩r墨, 厂腻惫颈迟谤墨, 艢丑颈惫腻, 痴颈诲耻濒腻, Sulav膩, Gautami, Arundati, 艢膩ndili, 顿补尘补测补苍迟墨, 艢ikand墨, Ga帽g膩, Satyavati, 骋腻苍诲丑腻谤墨, 惭腻诲丑补惫颈, Subadr膩, Citr膩峁単ad膩, 艢补产补谤墨 and so on. Some women like 驰辞驳颈峁嚹� Sula, Sidhi Shiva,Tapasvi峁嚹� 艢膩ndilyaduhit膩 observed permanent celibacy. They were the 狈补颈峁ａ弓丑颈办补 叠谤补丑尘补肠腻谤颈nis throughout their lives[40].
During the age parents generally appoints private teachers for their daughters. In the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补[41] we find that Draupadi along with her brothers received his education from the private teacher. In the 痴颈谤腻峁璦 parva of the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补[42], we find that as a private teacher V峁沨annal膩 Arjuna, taught dancing and singing to 鲍迟迟补谤腻.
Education of other Castes
In the epic period, the three upper classes, such as, 叠谤腻丑尘补峁嘺, 碍峁迟谤颈测补 and 痴补颈艣测补 were entitled to Vedic studies. But there is divergent opinion regarding 艢耻诲谤补鈥檚 right to education. 艢耻诲谤补s had no right to be invested with the sacred thread and therefore, they were debarred from prosecuting the Vedic studies. But in the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 we find that 尝辞尘补丑补谤峁苍 Sauti and Sanjay belonging to charioteer class were very proficient in knowledge[43]. They did not study the Vedas, nevertheless they were acquainted with the essence of the Vedas by means of going through the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺s. We find that 驰耻诲丑颈峁ａ弓丑颈谤补 appointed Yuyutsa to safe guard Hastinapura. None would appoint an ignorant person in such a strategic position. Certainly Yuyutsa was an intelligent and learned man. In the Rajasuya sacrifice 驰耻诲丑颈峁ａ弓丑颈谤补 addressed 艢耻诲谤补 as 鈥榁enerable鈥�. From the term 鈥榁enerable鈥� it may be presumed that during those days 艢耻诲谤补s were held in the eye of high esteem[44]. Besides, in the cabinet of ministers there were three persons belonging to 艢耻诲谤补 class. We may also point out the case of high-minded Vidura. He was born from the womb of 艢耻诲谤腻 woman. But by means of his paternal introduction Vidura was entitled to the Vedas. Nevertheless, he introduced himself as 艢耻诲谤补[45]. From the aforesaid references it may be said that during those days there were many doubts regarding 艢耻诲谤补鈥檚 right to education in the society. Almost in all cases 艢耻诲谤补s were engaged in the service of the upper three classes. Hence there were many obstacles and restrictions regarding 艢耻诲谤补s right to education during those days.
End of Studentship:
The studentship terminated with the performance of 厂补尘腻惫补谤迟补苍补 ceremony. There were no extra innovations and alterations. All the students, offering the proper 驳耻谤耻诲补办峁苍腻 performed 厂补尘腻惫补谤迟补苍补 ceremony and thereafter started their family life. But in the 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补[46] we find an interesting thing that sometime the teachers were satisfied with the unalloyed (pure) devotion of their students, they offered their own daughters in marriage with the students after the 厂补尘腻惫补谤迟补苍补 ceremony and thereby made the teacher-student relationship more closer. For example, the sage 鲍诲诲腻濒补办补 and the sage Gautama offered their daughters to Kahoda and Uttanka respectively in marriage.
To sum up the system of education in Epic age, we find that during the age 叠谤腻丑尘补峁嘺, 碍峁迟谤颈测补 and 痴补颈艣测补 received actual education. Military education received special emphasis. The method of learning was also varied from pupil to pupil. The students鈥� finished their education at the age of twentyfive. The status of teachers was also high. We find three types of teachers during the age. The Hermitage education was very popular during the age. Some hermitages were very popular where thousands of students flocked there to study the Vedas and the other 艢腻蝉迟谤补蝉. But regarding the education of women and 艢奴诲谤补 there were divergent views in society. It was a matter of fact that 艢奴诲谤补 status in epic age was much misunderstood. So we find that variegated development of education was the contribution of the Epic age.
Footnotes and references:
[1]:
[3]:
K峁泃opanayanast膩ta bhaved vedapar膩ya峁嚥贯弗|惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 艢丑腻苍迟颈.326.14.
[4]:
D峁泃ar膩峁ａ弓ra艣ca p膩峁囜笉u艣ca viudura艣ca 尘补丑腻尘补迟颈岣�鈥︹�︹�︹�︹�︹�a峁僺k膩rai岣� sa峁僺k峁泃膩ste tu vrat膩dhyansa峁儁ut膩岣� ||Ibid.膧di.108.18.
[5]:
膧测耻峁蝉迟补 肠补迟耻谤产丑腻驳补峁� brahmac膩ryanasuyak补岣Ibid. 艢丑腻苍迟颈.242.16. vedavratopavasena catuthai cayuse gate.Ibid. 艢丑腻苍迟颈.242.28.
[7]:
Yutrup补岣� sa hi gururityevamanucintyaca |athainam膩n墨ya 迟补诲腻 svayameva susatk峁泃am|| 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 膧诲颈.130.38
[9]:
叠谤补丑尘补肠腻谤墨 惫颈苍墨迟腻迟尘腻 jatilo vahul膩岣� 蝉补尘腻岣�鈥︹赌︹赌︹赌︹赌�.迟别苍腻丑补峁� saha sa峁僩amya vartayan 蝉耻肠颈谤补峁� prabhau ||惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 膧诲颈.13.41-43.
[10]:
Br膩hme muhurte budhyet dharm膩rtho c膩nucintayet |utth膩测腻camya ti峁ａ弓et 辫奴谤惫补峁� sa峁卍h测腻 k峁泃a帽jali岣� || 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 Anu.104.16.
tasm膩t ti峁ａ弓et 蝉补诲腻 辫奴谤惫腻峁� 辫补艣肠颈尘腻峁� caiva v膩gyat补岣 Ibid.Anu.104.18-19;
sarvadharmanirato 惫颈诲惫腻苍 sarvendryato 尘耻苍颈岣�|guro岣� priyahito 测耻办迟补岣� 蝉补迟测补诲丑补谤尘补辫补谤岣� 艣耻肠颈岣�|| Ibid.Aswa.46.2;
jitendriy补岣� sarvto vipra测耻办迟补岣� |Ibid.Adi.91.5;
N膩prik峁ta c膩ritram 惫颈诲测腻 deya katha帽can || Ibid.Sh膩nti.327.46.
[11]:
Tray墨 c膩nvik峁k墨 caiva 痴腻谤迟迟腻 ca bharatar峁bha |da峁囜笉an墨ti艣ca 惫颈辫耻濒腻 惫颈诲测腻statra nirdir艣it膩|| Ibid.艢丑腻苍迟颈.59.33;
yukti艣膩stra ca te je帽ya峁� 艣avda艣膩stra峁� 产丑腻谤补迟补 |Ibid.Anu 104.147.
[13]:
Te c膩pi manujav测腻gr膩 vaidik膩dhyayane rat膩 | pit峁浥泆艣rupa峁嘺rat膩 dhanurvede ca ni峁ａ弓it膩岣 搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺 18.35-36.
[14]:
[15]:
K峁涐梗i gorak峁Ｄ� v膩峁噄jyam vai艣yam karma svabh膩vajam| 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 叠丑墨峁补.40.48;
vaisyasya satatam dharmah pasupalyam krsistatha|Ibid.Anu.141.54.
[16]:
Vedaveda峁単atatvaj帽o Dhanurveda ca ni峁ａ弓it补岣|搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺 叠腻濒补.I.14.
Sarva艣腻蝉迟腻rthatatva帽j补岣� sm峁泃im膩npratibh膩nav膩n|Ibid.叠腻濒补.15;
膩rohe vinaye caiva yukto v膩ra峁嘺v膩jin膩m |Ibid.Ayodha.1.28.
[17]:
Dh膩rayantyasur膩 测腻ni dad膩myet膩ni sarva艣补岣� ||Ibid.叠腻濒补.27.13;
Mantragr膩ma峁� g峁沨膩峁嘺 tva峁� val膩mativala峁� 迟补迟丑腻 |Ibid.叠腻濒补.22.12.
[18]:
g膩ndharve ca bhuvi 艣re峁ａ弓o vabhuva bharat膩graj补岣|Ibid.Ayodha.2.34.
[19]:
Tato 诲谤辞峁� 补岣� pa峁囜笉uputr膩nstra峁噄 vividh膩ni ca鈥︹�︹�︹��..ta峁僺tu sarv膩n samaniya sarva惫颈诲测腻strasik峁tan|惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 膧诲颈.131.9-67.
[20]:
Tato 诲谤辞峁� 补岣� p膩峁囜笉uputr膩nastr膩峁噄 vivid膩ni ca| gr膩ha测腻m膩sa div测腻ni m膩nu峁Ｄ乶i ca viryav膩n|| Ibid. 膧di.131.9;
gad膩yuddheo鈥檚icar测腻测腻峁� tomarapr膩sa艣akti峁 | 诲谤辞峁� 补岣� sa峁僰墨r峁嘺yuddhe ca sik峁测腻m膩sa kaurav膩n|| Ibid.Adi.131.29.
[21]:
arjun膩d veda vedaj帽o岣� sakala峁� divyam膩nu峁m|| Ibid.膧di.221.72;
jag峁沨u岣� sarvami峁astramarjun膩d divyam膩nu峁m||Ibid.膧di.221.,88.
[22]:
峁歝o bahv峁沜amukyai艣ca preyarm膩峁嚹佱弗 padakramai岣 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 膧诲颈.70.37.
[23]:
[24]:
[25]:
诲谤辞峁嚥贯弗 prahara峁嘺j帽膩ne ji帽膩su岣� puru峁峁rbh补岣� || Ibid.膧di.131.67.
[27]:
Tato ni峁Ｄ乨ar膩jasya hira峁噛adhanu峁２贯弗 sut补岣�|ekalavyo m膩r膩j 诲谤辞峁嘺mabh测腻jag膩ma ha鈥︹�︹�︹�︹�︹�︹�at补岣� 艣补谤补峁� tu nai峁Ｄ乨ira帽gul墨bhirvyakar峁ta| na 迟补迟丑腻 ca sa 艣ignro鈥檅h奴da 测补迟丑腻 辫耻谤惫补峁� 苍补谤腻诲丑颈辫补 || 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 膧di.131.31-51. Etasminnantre ka艣cid峁涐梗irdhaumyo n膩m膩yodastasya 艣i峁２饽錽trayo babh奴vur奴pamanyur膩ru峁噄rveda艣cita鈥︹�︹��...................tatparito峁Ｄ乧ach 艣rey补岣� 蝉补谤惫补箩帽补迟腻峁� c膩v膩pa|E峁Ｄ� tas测腻pi 辫补谤墨办峁Ｄ� vedasya |Ibid.膧di.3.21-80.
[28]:
[29]:
[30]:
颁颈迟谤补办耻迟补尘颈尘补峁� 辫补艣测补 prav峁沝va艣ikhara峁� girim鈥︹�︹�︹�︹�︹�︹�︹�︹�bhigam测腻艣ram sarve v膩lm墨kimbhiv膩dayan||搁腻尘腻测补峁嘺 础测辞诲丑腻.56.10-16.
[31]:
[32]:
[33]:
Sa nit测腻艣rama峁� gtv膩 诲谤辞峁噀na saha p膩rthiv补岣�| cik墨dad膩hyayana峁� caiva 肠补办腻谤补 k峁triyar峁bh补岣|惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 129.42.
[34]:
搁腻尘补.叠腻濒补.1.41.
[36]:
惭腻濒颈苍墨mbhito 谤腻箩补苍补 苍补诲墨峁� pu峁叢饽遽箖 sukhodak膩m鈥︹�︹�︹�︹�︹�︹�︹��..tas测腻tire bhagavat补岣� k膩艣yapasya mah膩tman补岣� || Ibid.膧di.21.
[37]:
滨产颈诲.膧诲颈.70.19-26.
[38]:
Nami峁Ｄ乺anye 艣aunakasya kulapatedv膩da艣av膩r艣ike 艣atre || Ibid.膧di.1.1.1.
[39]:
[40]:
[41]:
叠谤腻丑尘补峁嘺峁� me 辫颈迟腻 辫奴谤惫补峁� v膩sa测腻m膩sa pa峁囜笉itam|so鈥檖i sarv膩mitro pr膩ha pitre me bharatar峁bha||苍墨迟颈峁� b峁沨aspatiprokt膩峁� bhr膩t峁沶 meo鈥檊r膩hayat 辫耻谤腻|te峁Ｄ乵 sak膩艣膩da 艣rau峁mahamet膩峁� 迟补诲腻 g峁沨e|| Ibid.Ban.32.60-61.
[43]:
[44]:
Man测腻na 艣奴dra峁兣沜a| 惭补丑腻产丑腻谤补迟补 厂补产丑腻.33.41; tr墨峁兣沜a 艣奴dran vin墨ta峁兣沜a 艣uc墨n karma峁噄 p奴rvake ||Ibid.艢丑腻苍迟颈.85.8.
[45]:
艢奴诲谤补yon膩vaha峁� j膩to 鈥︹�︹�︹�︹�︹�︹�|Ibid.Udyog.41.5.