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A. Title of the work: The main The work is named Paumacariyam (Padmacaritam)². theme of the work is about the life of Padma (Rama), eighth Baladeva of the Jaina faith, from his birth to emancipation. The pivotal incidents of the story are the voluntary exile of Padma, the kidnapping of his wife, Sita by Ravana and Rama's success in rescuing Sita, therefore, the title of the work suits the theme. B. The work a Carita or a Purana : The poet introduces the work as a 'carita' and gives it the same nomenclature in the colophons at the end of all the cantos and at other places also. At two places the work is designated as a 'Purana 5' also. The Jaina tradition does not distinguish between a 'Carita' and a 'Purana'. Ravisena styles his Padmacaritam as Padmapuranam also in the colophons at the end of some of the cantos. Jinasena and Puspandanta name their work dealing with the life of sixty-three illustrious persons of the Jaina faith as Mahapuranas while Hemacandra calls his work on the same subject, a Carita. Jinasena in his Adipurana defines 'Purana' as a narrative about ancient persons traditionally recognised as illustrious 6. He says that there are twenty-four Puranas dealing with the life of twenty-four Tirthankaras separately and the collection of all these is called a Mahapurana. So a Purana deals with the life of one illustrious person while a Mahapurana deals with the lives of many. Thus Paumacariyam may legitimately be called a Purana because it contains the narrative 1. Chandanusasanam with Vrtti, p. 18a, lines 17 & 18 and p. 19a, line 3. 2. It is only at 1.90 & 118.101 that the work is named 'Ramadevacariyam' and 'Ramaravinda-cariyam' respectively and in the Prasasti it is called 'Rumacariyam 118. 102 and 'Rahavacariyam 118.114; 118. 118. 3. 1.8 (Paumacariyam). 4. See above reference No. 2. 5. Satta Puranettha ahigara-1.32; ettha Puranammi vanniya (Prasasti 118.111). . 6. Puratanam Puranam 1.21. 7. 2.134.

586 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM of Padma, an illustrious ancient person. In the Paumacariyam, there are, no doubt, accounts of the lives of some other great persons but they are subordinated to the main story of Padma. Jinasena further tells us that a Purana should describe the Universe, the country, the capital, the kingdom, the Tirtha (the establishment of the ford), charities and penances, four states of existence and the fruits of 'punya' and 'papa'.' The Paumacariyam contains descriptions of all these topics. It further in its Prasasti states that the topics of Kama, Artha, Dharma and Moksa are also described in it². 5 4 Now let us trace the development of the concept of a Purana in the Brahmanical tradition. The Vayu³ and the Matsya Purana define Purana as an ancient tale. Gradually the definition of Purana expands. Amarasimha says that a Purana should contain the description of creation, dissolution and recreation, divine genealogies, ages of Manus and genealogies of kings. Later on five more topics are added to the above list, these being means of livelihood, incarnation of Gods, T'hus the final emancipation, Jiva (unmanifest) and Brahman." the Brahmanical concept of a Purana is wider than the Jaina one and a Jaina Mahapurana can be fairly compared with a Brahmanical Purana. Still later on the description of Dharma, Artha. Kama and Moksa were also considered to be important ingradients of a Brahmanical Purana. Our work also states that these four topics are described in it. C. Planning of the Paumacariya: The poet begins his work with a deliberate plan. He proposes to deal with the following seven subjects (Adhikaras) the universe, the genesis of Vamsas, departure for forest, battle, birth of Lava and Ankusa, salvation and various past births. 8 In the work proper the elaborate and poet takes up all these subjects. He also gives an systematic list of the contents of the work in the first canto (1.34-88). All those contents or topics are described into the work which is divided 1. 4. 3. See also Mahapurana of Puspadanta. (20. 1. 4-5). 2. Kamatthadhammamokkha ettha Puranammi Vanniya savve 118.111. 3. Yasmatpura hyanatidam Puranam tena hi smrtam 1.83. 4. Puratanasya kalpasya Puranani-Vidurbudhah-53-62. 5. Vide Studies in Epics and Puranas of India by A. D. Pusalker (1955), Int. pp. 46 f. 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid & Matsya Pu, 53.66 (Dharmascarthasca kamasca moksascaivatra kirtyate). 8. Thiivamsasamuppatti, patthanaranam Lavankusuppatti/ Nivvanamaneyabhava, satta Puranettha ahigara//1.32.

LITERARY EVALUATION 587 into 118 Cantos. The poet has not devoted seperate cantos for each topic proposed in the list of the contents. Sometimes a topic runs through more than one cantos and sometimes more than one topics have been included in one canto. Thus though the work, not divided into clear-cut Kandas like the Valmiki Ramayana, systematically follows the plan outlined in the first canto. D. A Narrative Epic Poem and its style: one. a pond and The work is a narrative epic poem. In a narrative the emphasis falls on the depiction of incidents which should proceed along in a chain the ensuing incident naturally emerging from the preceding The first incident is just like throwing a stone into then a series of incidents follows in concentric circles. poem Kaikeyi's 'svayamvara' is the germinating idea-the dent. Dasaratha's fight against his rivals results from it. the granting of a boon to Kaikeyi, demand of kingdom for Bharata, refusal of throne by Bharata and Rama's voluntary exile to remove the scruples of Bharata. Thus the incidents are woven into a chain. In this epic initial inciThen follow In the forest while cutting a thicket of bamboos, Laksmana unknowingly cuts off the head of Sambuka, the son of Candranakha. This incident results in Candranakha's asking her husband Kharadusana to kill the culprits. Then follow Ravana's arrival to help Kharadusana, the former's getting enamoured of Sita, kidnapping of Sita, death of Ravana, rumour against Sita, her exile, the war-campaign of Lavana and Ankusa against their father and so on. Thus the poet has moulded the whole story uniting and co-relating the incidents in a truly narrative style. Then there are incidents in the Paumacariya, which strike as being entirely novel to a reader of the Rama-kavyas preceding it. These incidents are Bhamandala's birth and his kidnpping, sham Sugriva's quarrel with Vanara Sugriva, battle of Lavana and Ankusa with Rama, the story of Kancuki and Rama's madness. At several places there are divergences also from the popular Rama story and thus we find that the narrative has gained a new pattern at the hands of Vimalasuri. The narrative runs ahead briskly yet easily. The language is simple, not burdened with complicated compounds and phrases. This simplicity of language and this ease of style make this narrative a successful one. The descriptions are always short so the easy flow of the narrative is never clogged, the curiosity of the reader is ever kept alive. All these are the essential features of a successful narrative.

588 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM There are spots where the poet has given discourses in the first person. Here we find a well marked transition in the gradual flow of the rythm. Short periods are introduced, style is shifted to adapt the verses to a natural dialogue. Varying moods of anger, quietude, challenge and counter-challenge have been conveyed by proper sound effects. These spots are dramatic and they have got picturesque qualities. Bharata's thoughtful and calm discourse with his father (31.79-92), Ravana's imploration to Sita and her angry retort (46,46-50), Vibhisanna's advice to Ravana and Indrajita's intervention (55,5-17), the hot exchange of words between Ravana and Vibhisana (61.14-19) and Laksmana and Ravana (71.51-57) are examples in question. Like most Indian classical Epics and Puranas the Paumacariyam also has not got the unity of plot. The main Rama-story has been intervened time and again by so many side stories. These side stories bear little or no organic connection with the main story but they add to the success of the narrative as a whole. They break the monotony of the main narrative and thereby save the work from being a cumbersome one, which it might have been because of its voluminous character. The main Rama-story commences from Canto No. 22. Preceding it, the narrative of Ravana is related. It depicts the 'utkarsa' of Ravana through his heroic achievements. He is the Pratinayaka in the main Rama-story where the 'vinasa' of Ravana is depicted. Thus we find that the hero of the main story gets elevated by bringing about the end of the khala-nayaka. It is a type of style of narration recognised by the rhetoricians. The main story as already stated above and the story of Ravana are intercepted with many side stories, of which some are interesting in themselves. It is the previous-birth stories of various characters which simply depict the 'phalas' of Karmas and have no other motive at all. A few of them merely enumerate serially the number of the previous births of one or the other character. The stories of Anjanasundari and Hanumat, Harisena, Naghusa and Simhika, Sodasa and Prabhava, and Sumitra are the examples of interesting side-stories. Similarly the stories of prudence are also not less interesting. The story of the origin of Brahmanas is quite an amusing one. Of all the intervening stories the story of Anjanasundari and Hanumat is the best from the point of view of its plot and plan.

LITERARY EVALUATION 589 Thus the side stories are like the sauces which keep up the appetite of the reader for the main-story, and the highest value of them lies in their motto of imparting some moral instructions to the people. Finally it is also true that the religious discourses intervening at some places hamper the free-flow of the narrative but it should not be forgotten that our work is called a Purana or a Carita and the introducing of religious discourses in such a work is a conventional style of the ancient literature. E. Characterisation : Generally in the Puranas episodes or events hold the first place while the participant characters are kept in the background, but the author of our work has paid due attention to characterisation. The characters of the Paumacariya are somewhat differently moulded than those of the Valmiki Ramayana We find that they are ennobled and are more plausible on account of generally being disconnected with the elements of superstition. Kaikey of the Paumacariya is no more a wicked and selfish woman. She is only a frail human being tossed by natural desires and affection. Ravana here is not a downright villain. The Vanaras are not monkeys in the literal sense of the term. They are a tribe having monkey as their state-emblem. Similarly the Raksasas are not fabulously ferocious and grotesque in appearance. They also are a race of ordinary human beings with war-like spirit. Ravana is one headed. Kumbhakarna is Indra is not a celestial lord. He religious, not diabolical by nature. There is nothing is the lord of the Vidyadharas, a human race. supernatural about the birth of Sugriva, Bali and Hanumat They are born just like human beings. Sita is not here born in any supernatural way. She is born of Videha, the wife of Janaka. Thus we find that the characters in the Paumacariya are plausible and devoid of any element of superstition. It is this due attention on the part of the poet, paid to characterisation that raises the Paumacariya above a simple traditional Purana and takes it to the plane of a work of art. Now we shall deal with the important characters of the Paumacariya individuall y. Rama Rama is the hero of the Paumacariya as he is of the Valmiki Ramayana and the other Rama-epics. He is a dhirodatta character, brave and generous, patient and firm in adverse situations, endowed with divine virtues and extraodinary prowess. The Rama of the Paumacariya and the Rama of the Valmiki Ramayana are mostly alike but in the Paumacariya there are points where Rama rises above the Rama of the Valmiki Ramayana In the Paumacariya Rama accepts exile voluntarily to remove the scruples of Bharata who does not accept the throne considering that it will be an onslaught on the legitimate

590 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM right of Rama. Advising Laksmana to cut off the ears and nose of Candranakha (Surpanakha), a woman in the Valmiki Ramayana may be said to be derogatory to the character of Rama. Here this incident does not find any place and thus the slur has been removed from the character of Rama. Rama's killing Vali stealthily also does not find mention. Rama of the Valmiki Ramayana kills Sambuka while the latter is meditating on the charge that he is a Sudra and no Sudra is entitled to perform any sort of penance. In the Paumacariya this point is left out and thus Rama gets saved from a criminal charge. In this way Rama of the Paumacariya is nobler and more humane than the Rama of the Valmiki Ramayana Bharata-Bharata is a noble character. We find him with his soul enlightened. He knows that the earthly glory is transitory, lust for power and possession is like running after a mirage. He is bent upon renouncing the world for he knows that liberation from the shackles of Karmas is the real goal of life. When Dasaratha decides to renounce the world he also gets ready for the same. Kaikeyi finds herself helplessboth her husband and son are going to renounce the world. Therefore she asks for a boon that Bharata should succeed Dasaratha and in this way she tries to force Bharata to stay with her. But Bharata's discretion could not allow him to accept the throne which is the right of Rama, his elder brother. It is only on being compelled by the circumstances that he accepts the throne for Rama voluntarily goes into exile. The seeds of this indifference to worldly life are traceable in the character of Bharata from an earlier period. On the occasion of Sita's 'svayamvara' Kaikeyi suspected that Bharata was developing a passive attitude towards worldly glory and achievements. Later on when Bharata fails to bring back Rama from exile, he accepts the throne no doubt but only with a firm and determined resolution that he would renounce the world on Rama's coming back from exile. When Rama returns, Bharata takes Diksa inspite of Rama's insistance on his continuing as the king. Thus we conclude that indifference to the world and a forceful drift towards asceticism are the recurring traits of his character. Laksmana-Laksmana is a passionate character swayed by spontaneous impulse rather than deliberation. He is a mighty force of nature as if it were, of course with a natural drift towards the good, guided by his own right reason and by Rama who acts as a beacon light for him. When Rama starts for exile, Laksmana gets angry with Dasaratha for he thinks that the latter is unjust, lacking in foresight and is violating

LITERARY EVALUATION 591 the tradition of the family. He feels an impulse that he should wipe out all the new and unexpected developments and restore Rama to the throne. But on second thought he is sobered and pacified thinking that he should depend on the judgement of his elders. At one spot Rama, Laksmana and Sita enter the residence of Kapila, a brahmin, to quench Sita's thirst. Kapila insults them saying that they had violated the sanctity of his house by entering into it. Laksmana is at once violently enraged. He catches hold of the brahmin's legs, turns him upside down and keeps him tossing and turning. Rama intervenes and rescues the brahmin. Laksmana is wanton and adventurous. When he gets a sword he tries it on a thicket nearby and incidentally cuts off Sambuka's head and thereby invites the enmity of Kharadusana. In the Paumacariya it is he who killed Kharadusana and Ravana. Chivalry is the dominant characteristic of all the heroes of the ancient and medieval literature. Laksmana also has a large share of it. He can even suffer the blow of king Aridamana's 'sakti' to win the hand of his daughter. Laksmana's character is ennobled on account of the absence of the episode of disfiguring Candranakha (Surpanakha). His character gets raised when he raises a voice of protest against Rama's deci sion of deserting Sita. Hanumat: Hanumat of the Paumacariya is born just in the ordinary way of a human being, he has no supernatural birth. He is a Vanara scion (Vanara being a human race) but not a monkey with a tail. No doubt he is mighty but never a super being. He married like an average man and was not a brahmacarin but quite chivalrous and brave. He was handsome and that was the cause of Lanka-sundari's attraction for him. That he will be a powerful force is indicated from his boyhood. He falls down from the aerial car captivated by Varuna in a battle. His heroism wins for him the son-in-lawship of Ravana's sister and that of Sugriva also. Here he is not a minister of Sugriva as in the Valmiki Ramayana. As a recognised character of integrity he is offered the delicate responsibility of meeting Sita in secrecy and that also in a foreign land. He is considered to be a suitable mediator and therefore he is sent to Ravana for conciliation. He is fearless and unshakable in adverse situations. His love for rightness and justice does not allow the interference of any relationship however close it might be. For the right cause he sides with Rama (Padma) and faces Ravana though he knows that he (Ravana)

592 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM is the benefactor of his family. His blood boils when he sees injustice. He teaches a lesson even to his grandmaternal-uncle to take revenge of the wrong done to his mother, Anjanasundari by exiling her for no fault of her. Ravana: In the Jaina tradition of the Rama-story, Ravana is the eighth Prativasudeva. He is a mighty conqueror. He attains so many spells (Vidyas) in his young age. The Ravana of the Paumacariya is not a ten headed monster, but a normal human being. He is ambitious, but not beastly cruel. He has imposed on himself certain moral rigorous disciplines. He has taken a vow that he would not establish sex-relations with any women without her consent. He does not molest Sita though he is advised by Mandodari to use force. Even before his taking the vow, he is not an easy victim to the infirmities of the flesh. He does not fall in the trap of Uparambha on the contrary he reproaches her for her frailty. He is humane. Just before the final battle between him and Rama, Sita requests him not to kill Rama and her brother, Bhamandala and she faints. Ravana is moved to pity. He curses himself that he brought about a train of miseries for Rama and Sita. He decides to give up Sita. But he is a warrior of repute, holding sway over a large part of Bharatavarsa and to yield is beyond his dignity. So he is determined to release Sita, only after having defeated Rama and Laksmana. Kaikeyi Kaikeyi's character has got a special treatment in the Paumacariya She is here free from jealousy and selfishness. She is a beautiful lady certainly younger than Aparajita and Sumitra, trained in and sciences. She So many arts and had military training also which is apparent from the fact that she drove the warchariot of Dasaratha when the latter fell out with his rivals after the 'svayamvara' of Kaikeyi. Kaikeyi here also demands the throne for Bharata but the motive behind is not jealousy or selfishness. Both Dasaratha and Bharata decide to renounce the world. Kaikeyi finds herself deserted and forlorn. She wants to retain Bharata by throwing on his shoulders the responsibilities of a king. She resorts to the boon granted to her by Dasaratha. Rama along with Laksmana and Sita voluntarily goes into exile to enable Bharata to accept the throne. Dasaratha renounces the world. Aparajita and Sumitra are extremely miserable having neither husband nor childern to rely on. At their plight Kaikeyi is moved to pity. Then she goes to ask Rama

LITERARY EVALUATION 593 to come back. Thus she is tender and sympathetic from being naturally cruel and jealous. She asks Rama to forgive her praying that it was all brought about by the frailty and fickleness of woman's mind. never intended any harm. She She is a devoted and affectionate mother. She could never live without Bharata. When finally after Rama's return from Lamka, Bharata renounces the world, she finds that life is no more worth living for her. She gets solace only when she also renounces the world. Sita: Sita of the Paumacariya has not any divine birth. She is born of the wife of Janaka. She is gentle and virtuous, tender and kind-hearted. She shows a child-like simplicity of nature when she requests Ravana not to kill her brother and her husband. She prevents Lavana and Ankusa from attacking their father. She is patient and forgiving by nature. She does not accuse Rama at the time of her banishment. She holds that it is due to her own Karmas that she is thrown into exile. Although she is meek and mild yet she is full of self-respect. When called back from exile, Rama is not ready to accept her without some definite proof of her constancy. Then the suppressed spirit of womanhood rebels in Sita. She does undergo the fire-ordeal but does not fail to give Rama a touching reprimand. After the fire-ordeal Rama asks her to come home. But by now she has been sufficiently acquainted with the crooked and uncertain ways of the world. Two much embittered to accept the worldly life she downright rejects the proposal of Rama and the world to get the eternal and infinite bliss of renounces emancipation. F. Poetic Merits: The Paumacariyam though a Purana yet it is not devoid of poetic beauty. The very opening verses in which the poet pays obeisance to the Jinas indicate that the poet has got an easy grip over music and music is the soul of poetry. There are short and charmingly rythmical descriptions strewn all over the work. They ease the tension of the continued narration by their lullying and soothing effect on the minds of the readers. The style of its narration is not pedantic, rather it is simple and easily comprehensible to even an average reader. DESCRIPTIONS. As regards the scope of the work it covers a large canvas comprising of both the human world and the world of nature. 38

594 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM Country: In the very beginning of the second chapter of Paumacariya there is a conventional description of Magadha (2.1-7). The poet at first speaks of the situation of the Magadha country in Jambudvipa. Then the description of the habitats, the people, their economic conditions and social behaviour follow systematically. It reminds us of Magadha described in the Vasudevahindi (I. p. 2). Vidyadhara country at 3.157-161 and Vanaradvipa at 6.39-41 also have been described on the same pattern. The descriptions are not mere mechanical reproductions but are interlarded with varieties here and there. At 33.14-16 there is a short and simple but effective description of a war-ravaged country side of Avanti. The place has been widowed for the inhabitants have deserted it. Everything is in a chaotic state; grains and crops scattered, routes and roads broken, disjointed carts lying uncared and old oxen languishing hither and thither. City At 2.9-14 the city of Rajagrha with its ramparts, magnificent buildings beautified by display of light emitted by rubies and emeralds, pleasure gardens, the humming markets and various spectacles on public roads has been described in a picturesque manner. It reminds us of the city of Sagala described in the beginning of the Milindapanho and the city of Rajagrha described in the Vasudevahindi (I. p. 2). At 8.263-270 the description of the city of Lanka is given on the same pattern. There is also a display of colours and sweet smell of incense coming from the houses. The poet fancies (utpreksa) that the temples therein are so lofty as if they are trying to embrace the sky (8.265) and the flags of the fort of Lanka are so waving in the air as if the city is beckoning Ravana (8.266), to come to her. Sea: At 8.258-62 there is an awe-inspiring description of Lavanasamudra¹. The mighty sea is agitated with mountainous waves and 1. bhimabhasamaya rakacchaha-srannonnavadiya viluliyavattam | graafaggaiga-faegfwyafaayasa 11 dazafafcqags-fagfsqde:aafsquaZN | sataramgamaruyaha - sariyamuhabhariyakulayalam || kulaya hamsasarasa- kala malabharaja giyaruddhata damaggam | tadamaggarayana bahu viha- kiranujjo viyaduruppayaram | quzzafaqqqifaq-quafauannug'ng'aza | pumja iyadivvapaya va kusumasama innadinnaccam || dinnaccaranam va rehai, mahallahallantavi isamghatt | samghatajalauriya, savvatto gulagulayantam || 8 .258-262

LITERARY EVALUATION 595 acquatic monsters. The conch-shells are crushed to pieces on being continuously pressed on the corals by the surging waves and are washed away towards the mouths of the emptying rivers. The seashore is shining with the rays emitting from the gems. The pearls, foams and the flowers all together bordering the water, are giving such an appearance as a colourful worship has been offered to the sea. The sound effects in the verses are so designed by the poet that they give an illusion of the surging and roaring waves, coming one after another, breaking on the shore and producing tumultuous sound. The action of the waves is skilfully captured in the rythm of the verses. Suitable sounds have been arranged and the reproduction of the ending sound in the beginning of the following verse gives an idea of the resurgence of the waves one preceding the other and thus continuing in an endless chain. River At 94.49-52 there is the description of the Ganges with flashes of novelty here and there. The description of the sea in the Paumacariya excels that of Kalidas in Raghuvamsa at 12.9-18 in onomatopoeic effects, no doubt Kalidasa excels as regards similes and metaphors and its association with human actions and feelings. In the description of the sea Vimalasuri handles with ease big compounds. Use of such big compounds is an usual feature in the Setubandha specially when the poet describes the sea agitated by the arrows of Rama. These compounds convey an effect of multitude. In the description of the country of Vijayapura, the Kuvalayamala* (p. 149) has adopted the same device of repeating the ending word of the preceding foot in the beginning of the following foot. Mountain :-At 3.79-83 the Mandara mountain is described. There is the radiant glow of the gems and rubies. The tree-tops are beautified by waving creepers. There are the humming bees and murmuring brooks and finally the animals and the celestial beings making merry in the forest. Here we find a mild and gentle aspect of the forest. The verses have got a smooth and musical flow. Forest-In the description of the Citrakuta (33.5-9) the fearful It is teeming with trees, aspect of the forest has been brought out. wild life, birds and rivulets. The roaring lions are tearing the foreheads of the elephants, the elephants are taking to their heels at the sight of the Sarabhas, the tiger and the bison are attacking each other. At places the monkeys and the birds are shrieking and at places the deers are fleeing away. * Ed. by Dr. A.N. Upadhye.

596 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM A similar aspect af Simhaninada forest is described at 94.37-45. The poet introduces a variety of details also. Somewhere the forest is thick and it is pitch-dark, somewhere the trees and plants have been burnt to ashes, somewhere the bisons are enjoying dips in the river, somewhere the Pulindas are crying 'chu, chu', somewhere the bamboothickets are on fire and somewhere the bears are sounding fearful shrieks¹. This description excels in onomatopoeic effects. Adaptation of sound to the sense-effect is a common feature of the poet's art in the Paumacariya Seasons :-At 11. 112 - 119 the poet describes rainy season with an array of metaphors. The black clouds are elephants, the flying cranes are the flags, the lightning flashes are the golden belts of the elephants, the rainbow is their colourful ornament and the juice flowing from the temples of the elephants is the raining water. 2 These elephants in a war array are welcoming the arrival of victorious Ravana The sky has gone dark and the land has formed crevices. The way-farers being struck with the torrents of rain fall into swoon but soon get solaced with the hope of uniting with their beloveds. They have been confined to particular places for the roads have been blocked by the rainy 1. katthai tarugharanagahanam, pecchai sa savvaritamasariccham | katthai payavarahiyam, ranam ciya ranaranayatam || katthai varanadavadaddhe, rannam masidhumadhulidhusariyam | katthai niladumavanam, pavaranahayapacaliyadaloham || kili kili kilanta katthai, nanavihasauna miliyasamghattam | katthai vanarapauram, vukka ruttasiyamayajuham || katthai savayabahuviha-grannonnavadiya jujjhasaddalam | katthai sihabhauduya-cavala palayantagayanivaham || katthai mahisoritkiya, katthai huhuhuhuhuhantanaisalilam | katthai pulindapauram, sahasa chucchu tti kayabolam || katthai venusa mutthiya- phulimgajala ulam dhagadhagentam | katthai kharapavaranahya - kadamadabhajjantadumagahanam || katthai kiritti katthai, hiritti katthai chiri ttiricchanam | saddo ghorayaro, bhayajara savvasattanam || 94 .36-45 2. dhavalabalayadhayavada - vijjula yakanayabandhakaccha ya inda uhakaya bhusa, jharantanavasaliladanoha || amjanagirisacchaya, gharanahatthi pahudam va suravaina | , sampesiya pabhuya, rakkhasanahassa sraiguruya ||| 11 .112-113

LITERARY EVALUATION 597 water. Helpless as birds without wings, they are pining for their sweet hearts (beloveds). The earth, a beautiful damsel clothed in bright watery garments is smiling in the blossoming Kutaja flowers at the arrival of Dasanana. In the description of the rainy season in the Rtusamhara (2.1) Kalidasa uses similar metaphors.1 The Rainy season is the king, the clouds the elephants and lighting the flags. While describing gardens, forest and rivers the poet merely gives an exhaustive list of trees, plants, creepers, acquatic birds and animals without any poetic colouring (53.79; 46.73-76; 21.48-50, 42.6-10; 10.30-32; 34.32-33; 42.15-16; 16.46-47). However it shows that he was quite familiar with the proper names of the forest and animal wealth of the country. In the description of morning (2,119), sunrise (15.83), evening 2.99-100, 70.49) etc., the poet follows a bookish and conventional method. Physical Features:-In describing physical features of men and women the poet follows a conventional pattern. The similes and metaphors are mostly borrowed from books and the same epithets are frequently repeated in the same the same context (See 2.16-18; 11.105-107; 15.61-63; 14.94-98; 26.99-101). Ceremonies, sports and Stutis:-There are colourful flashes of the descriptions of 'svayamvara' ceremonies of Vidyadhari Srimala (6.159- 175) and Sita (28.105-122), the religious ceremonies of the worship of the Jinas (66.20-30; 3.87-92) and the sports of princes with the agitated elephants in rut (8.172-179; 8.217-223). But in all these cases there is a surface description. Howeve the 'stutis' addressed to the Jinas are captivating on account of their smooth and musical flow and inspired and elevated tone (1.1-8; 28.47-50). Living Conditions:-At 31.42-47 it is very striking to note that the poet has brought out effectively the contrast between the living conditions of the rich and the poor. The rich people lead luxurious life living in magnificent palaces, clad in beautiful robes, feeding on delicious dishes, indulging in varied fleshy pleasures amidst damsels, music, dances and perfumeries. And on the other hand the indigent ones do not get even the bare necessities of life. In chilly winters their bodies are sore, their fattered clothes cannot keep off the cold, fire is their only rescue. 1. sasikarambhodharamattaku jarastaditpata ko'sanisabdabhardalah | samagato rajavaduddhatadyutirghanagamah kamijanapriyah priye || rtusamhara - 2 .1

598 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM Emotions and Feelings and Rasas. Curiosity: At 8.276-280 the curiosity of the Nagaravadhus flocking at the windows to get a glimpse of Ravana entering the city after his victory over Yama has been beautifully described. Their gestures, movements and dialogues sound quite natural¹. At 100.50-56 there is a similar description with very few new ideas, on the occasion of Lavana and Ankusa's entry into the city of Ayodhya. Even the words and phrases of the preceding description have been repeated. It may be compared with the descriptions of the curiosity of housewives to have a glance at Buddha in the Buddhacarita at 3.13-22 and to have that of the procession of Aja and Indumati in the Raghuvamsa at 7.5-11. The point of comparison in these three descriptions is simply that the women in all cases flock to the windows with their lotus-like faces. There is restraint in the Buddhacarita, it is erotic in the Raghuvamsa while in the Paumacariya it is simply colloqual. Panic At 67.18-26 the poet describes the panic among the Raksasa women. The Vanara soldier unexpectedly enter the city of Lanka. The women of the city get agitated and confused. There is a sudden flurry and turmoil. Women make a cry of alarm. They lose the awareness of their ornaments and garments. But even here the poet could not lose the sight of the charming physiognomy of beautiful women, because it is traditionally associated with them. Madness: At 113.1-12 there is a description of Rama's insanity. It is quite natural. Rama loses his hold on the faculty of reason at the sudden death of Laksmana who had been so near and dear to him throughout his life. He embraces the dead body, gets it bathed, brings it to the parlour and proposes to feed it with delicious dishes. He offers wine to it and entertains it. Ram's insanity springs from his 1. nayaravahuhi sigdham, dahamuhadarisana maranahi sraireyam | samsarium gavakkha, ruddha viya vayanakamalehim || gar qza deas, divi ai sife qinat gfea | ang fa ar ufygas, fa qum a gisu afgu 11 ma thara harena pellasu, dahamuhadarisaragamanasi icavale | aty fa a ufyar ar, ar gqu naqad ga 11 bhanai sahi dhammillam, avasarasu majjha nayanamagga ang fa a ar afgar, a a deafa near faze 11 nayaravahuhi evam dasarananam tattha pecchamaranihi | ' halabola muhalasadda, bhavaranagavakkha kaya savve || 8 .276-280

LITERARY EVALUATION 599 failure to believe that Laksman is really dead, one is so reluctant to believe such hard realities even though they are wrought before one's bare eyes. One may not be aware of failing of one's own reason but he is likely to perceive such failings in others. Rama perceives the insanity of others deliberately enacted and then gradually he comes to realise his own by perceiving similarity between his own and their deeds. How natural is the psychological treatment by which Rama gets cured (113.28-45). Sentiments or Rasas. It is a religious epic poem so it is 'Santa-rasa' the sentiment of quietude that dominates in it. But Rasas like Srngara, Karuna and Vira have also been emphasised and the other Rasas also have not altogether been left. Sentiment of Love:-In the Paumacariya at 10.36-43 and 70 51-59 we find charming descriptions of the water-sports of king Sahasrakirana with his wives and the amorous activities of the Raksasa couples respectively. Here the Sambhoga aspect of Srngara Rasa is at its climax. In the water sports at 10.36-43 the gestures and the activities of the damsels who are sporting with the king are sensuous. Some damsel conceals her breasts with her Uttariya, the king snatches it away and she has no other alternative but to take a dip into the water. Someone hides the scratch on her breast with her hands, out of bashfulness. Others throw water on the king to attract his attention. Someone gets angry with the king at the latter's negligence of her, the king then appeases her and thus follows many sweet sports¹. At 70.51-57 there is a description of the revels of the Raksasa couples. The Raksasas are going to do or die on the morrow, so on 1. ekka tattha varatanu, thanayuyalam amsaena chayanti | yagfzusafzgat, agafa ga ug fagggi || isavasena kuviya, udayam ghetuna komalakaresu | kantassa harisiyamarana, ghattai vacchatthalabhoe || indivaradalanayarana, ghettum indivaram haranai anna | gare ar fa gfci, gigfag agcaaafe 11 anna . datthuna ure, nahakkhayam balacandasam thanam | avariyauttarijja, chaei thanam karayalenam || kaettha panayakuviya, monam parigihiuna varajuvai | tisam purana uvaraniya, daiena sirappana | menam || 10 .37 - 41

600 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM the previous night they are drinking the cup of life to their fill for it may be their last sip. It is a vivid and powerful picture of extreme indulgence in flesh. Someone is embracing her beloved. Some damsel with her delicate body is lying in her husband's lap. The balas, young women are made drunken so that they might get rid of their bashfulness. These descriptions indicate poet's familiarity with the Kamasutra. Similarly Rama's watersport with Sita in the Kroncarava river described at and Pavananjaya's amorous sports with Anjana are 42.18-22 and 16.77-80 with slight varieties here and there. At 117. 25-29 the coquettish gestures of divine damsels making amorous antics are described. They were conjured up by Sita who then was a celestial being to distract Rama from meditation. This device of diverting attention from meditation has become conventional. In the Kiratarjuniya also we find a similar description at 10.45-63 but there it is more sensuous. We have glimpses of Sambhoga Srngara in Sita's coming to Rama after the (28.121-122) 'svayamvara' ceremony, Lankasundari's surrender to Hanumat (52.19-23) and Rama's reunion with Sita at Lanka (76.12-16). There are instances of Vipralambha Srngara also. live an instinctive and At 56.13-19 the Raksasis in Lanka are bidding farewell to their men proceeding to the battlefield. Here we find a juxtaposition of the super-ego on one hand and an urge to spontaneous life on the other. Some Raksasi is asking her husband. not to flee away from the battlefield. Others try to prevent their going to the battlefield, for a life in the flesh is sweeter to them than honour and heroic glory. It is the pang of separation that dominates the scene. One is led to think that the revels of Raksasa couples and bidding of farewell by Raksasis described in the Paumacariya have their genesis in the similar descriptions of the Setubandha at 10.56-82 and 12.45-52 respectively. The sorrow of separation from one's beloved is exemplified in Rama's and Sita's pining for each other, at 44.51-66 and 53.21- 26 also. At 15.49-51 in the description of love lorn Pavananjaya there is a mere enumeration of the ten stages of love. The sufferings of Bhamandala and Ravana from the pangs of separation from Sita, described at 28.10-11 and 46.81-84 are the

LITERARY EVALUATION 601 examples of Srngarabhasa. Simply the conventional stages of love sickness have been mechanically produced, therefore, they do not touch the deeper chords of our hearts. Sentiment of Pity:-In the Paumacariya there are many spots where the effects of Pathos have been brought out. At 29.20.29 the old Kancuki of Dasaratha gives a vivid and pictursque description of his own decrepitude with striking similes. He is like an old and worn out cart, his eyes deceive him like selfish friends, his ears are like disobedient sons, his teeth have fallen down like the seeds of a gourd, his arms are like the trunks of elephants hardly able to raise food to his mouth. his legs cannot carry him fast because they are like unfaithful wives and above all he has got none to rely on except his walking stick. This pitiable condition of the chamberlain stirs the heart of Dasaratha for old age with all its pity is bound to come to him also¹. At 16.1-9 Anjana's silent and isolated suffering is described. She has been deserted by her husband for years together. She is burning in her lonely anguish. Her life is dull and monotonous. Her plight moves the readers to pity. She has been At 78. 1-6 Aparajita's suffering is described. She has separated from her dear son Rama. Her mental unrest verges on to insanity. Sometimes she fixes her hollow gaze on the streets, then again she speaks to the crow asking it to carry her message to Rama, 1. eyam jarae amgam, majjha kayam vigayadappaucchaham | , turantassa vi dhaniyam, na vahai parijunnasayadam va || } je asi majbha nayana, samiya padhamam viyaraditthilla | te vi ya na dihapehi, sampai jaya kumitta vva || kanna vi padhamavayanam, nisunanta mammanam pi ullabam | tesu mahayam pi saddam, na sunanti pahu duputta vva || jamgha viya majjham, asi pura calanagamana dacchamro | naha pranayatta, sampai jaha dutthamahilao || navaram ciya hiyaittha, daiya viva naravai maham latthi | ja kunai pravatthambham, ghulantavivasunta dehassa || turantassa ya amga, kampai bahula havanti nisasa | khe啷� ya samupajjai, gai vi mandam samuvvahai || katto cciya vakkhevo, samiya srahayam jarae parigahisro | prana tujjha ento, imae velae sampatto || 26 .22-29h

602 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM promising it to pay a dish of milk-gruel as a reward. It is a simple and natural description. At 94. 54-101 the effect of pathos is most intense. Rama sends Sita with Krtantavadana on a pretence of pilgrimage. She is carried to a dense and frightful forest far away from Ayodhya and there her escort almost choked with pity breaks to her the most cruel news that by the orders of Rama he has brought her to leave her behind in the forest. She is instantly shocked because it is a bolt from the blue. She complaints bitterly but the very next moment she revives her patience and sends her message to Rama to pacify him. She is most calm and collected even in her sorrow. Here is a magnanimous suffering. It burns within but does not fume without. She shines in the white heat of her suffering. Pathos here is controlled. Serenity and sobriety of her character come on the forefront. She does not complain, on the Her contrary she asks Rama to forgive her blaming her own fate. infinite capacity to bear the sorrow rakes up the sympathy of the readers and thereby intensifies the effect of pathos. The poet has handled the situation with sincerity. At 62. 1-23 Rama expresses his deep remorse at the swooning of Laksmana being struck by the Sakti of Ravana in the battlefield. It is a pathetic spot. He has lost his enthusiasm. He is ready to bid good bye to the war. Now life is no more worth living for him. His heart sinks with the fear of losing his most precious gem which he can never regain. Another 74.12-26 where spot of pathos can be traced at It is a conwomen raise a hue and cry on the death of Ravana. ventional stereotyped description. It remains superficial because it fails to touch the deeper chords of our heart. The description of the women weeping bitterly at the death of Laksmana follows on the same pattern. Words and phrases also have been repeated (110.30-36). Sentiment of Heroism:-There are frequent displays of enthusiasm in war-messages, counter retorts, marchings of the armies and battle scenes where the sentiment of heroism is brought out. At some places Vira and Raudra (sentiment of Wrath or Fury) are overlapping as a result of the simultaneous display of the feelings of enthusiasm and anger on the part of the characters. In the description at 56.21-25 the Raksasa soldiers are depicted to be so actuated upon by super-ego that they would die in the battlefield for the sake of honour. The fire of their enthusiasm would not be quenched by the tears of their wives.

LITERARY EVALUATION 603 Ravana's overflowing pride and enthusiasm and his uncontrolled wrath have been brought out in his retorts under-mining the advice of Vibhisana and in his counter challenges to Laksmana at 73.13-23. to tolerate At 8.68-84 in connection with Kumbhakarna's plundering the country of Vaisravana there is a spirited warning of the messenger sent to Sumalin by Vaisravana. This warning verges on threatening. Naturally Ravana's spirited youth does not it because Lanka was his hereditary possession which was usurped by Vaisravana Vaisravana. deprecates He angrily retorts and He even raises his sword to sever off the head of the messenger but Vibhisana saves the situation. Such hot exchange of words between the messenger of a king on one hand and another king or his army head on the other is an usual feature preceding a war at 37.19-25; 53.129f and 65.12-34. Non-compliance with the messages frequently lead to a call for battle. In such calls there is a vigorous display of caurage and enthusiasm in the belligerent parties. At 8.89-92, 12.82-87 and 70.63-71 there are brisk preparations for battle by Vaisravana, Indra and Ravana's soldiers respectively. Then follow their marchings and consequently fierce battles between the Soldiers parties concerned. These are the spots of heroic sentiment. are thrilled and enthused at the very name of war. At the final call they at once rush to the battlefield with a positive will. The fierce weapons they are equipped with, the sky rending cheers that they raise, the music of the trumpets and the wardrums, their fearful march which sometimes is said to throw into chaos the entire earth-all these are vividly described. At 56.27-44 and 57.1-27 there is similar description of marching soldiers of Ravana and Rama respectively. Here merely a long list of proper names is appended. The descriptions of the war scenes at above places are realistic and concrete but all are based on the same pattern. At 61.32-42 there is a fierce neck to neck fight between the armies of the Vanaras and the Raksasas. Various critical positions arising in the battlefield follow in a pictursque succession. Some soldier entangled in a serious fight catches his sword between his teeth and girlds up his loins with both his hands. Soldiers challenge one

604 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM another during their fight and pounce down upon one another with fury and rashness. At 71.23-33 the operation of various weapons is described. Fire sparks are emitting from the striking weapons. Crackling sound is heard. The horses, elephants and chariots are seen without their riders. Banners have been torn off. It also contains a loathsome description of the soldiers wounded and killed in the battle. There is variety in the description of hurling of missiles and countermissiles by the fighting parties at 12.126-130, 59 60-66; 61.43- 48 end 71.60-68, but they all are described on the one and the same pattern. Another variety is introduced by describing individual fight. between Vaisravana and Ravana ( 8.110-120), Ravana and Indra (12. 131-137), Rama and Ravana (61.64-68). The fights between Laksmana and Kharadusana (45.9-11), Indrajit and Sugriva (59.52-56), Laksmana and Ravana ( 71.51-57 ) are usually preceded by challenge and counter challenge. The poet has enhanced the effect of the heroic sentiment by the use of onomatopoeia and rythmic devices. The commotion in the battlefield has been vividly represented by sound effects. Action 1. hana chinda bhinda nikkhiva, uttisthuttittha lahu padicchahi | paraphoda tada maraya, || surasurana imo, vattai ahiyam parikkhanakalo | jaha bhujjai sraharo, na taha jujjhijjae samare || ma bhahi kayara tumam, digam na hanami jam ca parahuttam | te viso padinisro, prajja tumam ceva natthasi || koi bhado sannaham, sahasa vicchinnabandhanam daththe | samdhei sahupuriso, jaha neham vihadiyam santam || dantesu dhariyakhaggam, prabandheuna, pariyaram suhado | jujjhai visanna mano, samiyaparitosanujjutto || sisa gahiekmekka, churiyapaharesu kei paharanti | prasikanayatomarehim, suhada dhayanti annonnam || keettha galiyasattha, garuyapaharahaya himakhenam | padiuttiyam karenta, anne lolanti mahivatte || hatthi jajjariyatagu, mucanta ruhirakaddamuddamam | chajjanti jalayakale, giri vva jaha geruyaliddha || 61 .31-41

LITERARY EVALUATION 605 and movement of soldiers, their marching and rushing at each other has been caught successfully of the verses at 53.107-1131. At Sentiment of Terror :-We come across some thrilling descriptions of horrible scenes. At such spots sentiment of fear is evoked. 7.117-26 Ravana while meditating is disturbed by the Yaksas, the Vetalas and evil spirits. They conjure up large serpents and lions fearful visages. The latter roar and scratch the ground with their forepaws. All they create an atmosphere of awe. But the reader is aware of the fact that this awe is simply illusory. At 46.42 similar is the case with the scene conjured up by Ravana to frighten Sita. Unlike the previous ones the scene of Citrakuta forest at 33.5-8 is on the real canvas. It is teeming with wild and fearful beasts engaged in mutual fight. The chaotic conditions evoke terror. Similar is the description of Simhaninada forest at 94.37-45 with slight variety. The density and darkness of the forest and ashes left out after conflagration has been emphasised. To them can be added the description of Lavana ocean at 8.258-63. All these three have already been dealt with. Sentiment of Disgust:-The scene of cemetery ground described at 105.53-61 creates a feeling of disgust. There are ghosts and hobgoblins eating human flesh and munching bones, fire is burning with diverse coloured flames, everywhere there is a nauseating display of ugly 1. payandadandasasana, viinna hemakamkana | calanta kannakundala, suvannabaddhasuttaya || bicittavatthabhusana, suyandhapupphasehara | saku kumamgara |iya, tiridadittamottiya || sacakkakhaggamoggara, tisulacavapattisa | jalantasattisavvala, mahantakuntatomara || sasamikajjha ujjhaya, pavamgaghayadariya | vimukkajiyabandhana, padanti to mahabhada || sahavatikkhanakkhaya, lasantacarucamara | pavamgama uhahaya, khayam gaya turamgama || pavamgabhinnamatthaya, khudantadittamontiya | || paranatthadanaduddina, padanti mattaku jara || vicittahemanimiya, vinitthakamcanatthaya | pavamgavayacunniya, khayam gaya maharaha || 53 .107-113

606 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM and repulsive sights and sounds. The poet here displays visual imagination'. At 26.48-57 there is a description of hell-following the pattern of the Agamas. The tortures, suffering and repulsive things are described here. At 39.24-28 hobgoblins and ghosts with their ugly visages try to distract munis from meditation. They emit fire and throw blood and severed limbs. In these two cases there is a mixture of fear and disgust. The important difference between the first, second and the third one is that the first is on the real canvas while the second is imaginary and the third one is conjured up. They are on conventional pattern. However the effective use of onomatopoea and rythmic devices in the first two descriptions enhance the effect of hatred and repulsion. Sentiment of Wonder:-The sentiment of wonder also can be traced at some places. When Rama breaks the bow, entire universe is thrown into a state of chaos. The rivers flow upwards, the mountains shake and the sea is agitated with mountainous waves. It is all calm and quiet again, 1. bahuvihaciya paliviya, jalantadajjhantamadayasamghayam | , gahabhuyabambharakkhasa- dairinaveyalabhisanayam || kili kili kilanta rakkhasa- sivamuhujjaliya peyasamghayam | kavvayasatthapauram, madayasa motthaiyamahivi dham || paccantamadayapupphasa- simisimiya galanta ruhiravicchaddham | dainikabandhaddhaya - bhimam runtantabhuyaganam || kadapu na ga hiyaradanta dimbhayam kayatigiccha mantaravam | mandalarayapavanuddha ya indauhajaniyanahamaggam || vijjasahana suttiya - jamguliyata rajaniyamantaravam | , - vayasa vahiyamasam uddhamuhunnaiyajambuganam || katthai peyaddhaya - madayavikirantapeyasaddalam | katthai veyalayam, runuruniyabhamantabhuyaganam || katthai radantarittha, annattam bhugubhugantajambuganam | ghughughughughughe ntaghuyam katthai kayapimgalabola || katthai kadhorahuyavaha-tadatadaphutta ntatthisaddalam | katthai saranaddhaya-madayamisalaggajuddhadhanam || katthai kavaladhavalam, katthai masidhumadhulidhusariyam | kisuyavara va katthai, jalamala ulam dittam || 105 .53-61

LITERARY EVALUATION 607 celestial beings shower flowers and sing praises (28.116-119). The description is conventional. There is an elements of surprise in the description of the multiplying of Ravana's heads when heads when severed off by Laksmana at 72. 16-19. At 102.10-30 Sita's fire ordeal is described. A fire pit is prepared. The gust of smoke rises therefrom and darkens the sky. The fearful fire bursts into flames like thousand suns. People are in a breath taking suspense as Sita steps towards the fire-gaping death as it were. But no sooner Sita enters the pit, it is converted into a pond of cool and clear water. It rises up and lo, it is a deluge. People are afraid again but finally cosmos prevails. The water shrinks below the banks and is beautified with smelling lotuses. Sita is seated on a divine throne floating on the surface of the water. There is a striking contrast between the previous and the latter scene. This contrast is enhanced by rythmic and sound effects. It is a wonder, a miracle indeed. Besides these there are several occasions when supernatural qualities and events associated with Tirthankaras and other great persons are described. They evoke a sense of wonder, but they are all traditional and conventional. Sentiment of Humour :-Examples of Humour are not missing in the epic. Episodes of Batuka Kapila, Narada's entry into Sita's palace and Angada's and his soldiers' exploring into the palace of Ravana are such instances. At 35.61 Batuka Kapila is ridiculed. First he drives away Rama, Laksmana and Sita when they enter his house to ask for some water to quench Sita's thirst. He thinks that the sanctity of his Agnihotrihouse is violated (35. 5-16), But he goes to the palace conjured up by the Yaksa for he has been told that he will be given some wealth by the wealthy occupants of the house. Although Jainism is not his faith, he would chant Namaskara mantra so that he might be allowed to enter the palace. Then in the palace he is dumbfound to see there Laksmana who had manhandled him previously, in his own house. He suddenly retreats. His excessive anger and intolerance, his lust for wealth and his headlong retreat-all produce an effect of ridicule and laughter. Muni Narada (28. 1-5) wistfully visits the palace of Sita. Sita is frightened to look at Narada with his long whiskers and matted hair. She shrieks and consequently Narada finds himself surrounded by women-guards of the harem. Poor muni is really in an embarrassed

608 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM situation. He tries to free himself but the clamour of the women attracts the attention of the palace men who rush at at him with threateing and catch hold of him. Foor muni however takes to his heels. The muni has been put in a poor plight indeed, but we hardly feel any pity for him. We simply laugh at him for his own wistful desires are responsible for bringing him in this tight corner. The humour in the first example is sarcastic, in the latter a bitter one to some extent but at 68. 9-15 there is pure and harmless humour. Angada with his followers explores into the palace of Ravana, Time and again they are deceived by appearances. Somewhere there is such a crystalline wall as cannot be perceived by them so naturally they dash against it. Then again they look at a piece of sculpture. They take it to be a real woman and so they begin to talk to her. They realise their mistake only when they touch the effigy, These gross blunders of theirs evoke laughter in the readers. In the previous two examples there are short flashes of humour and here the effect is somewhat sustained. This description compares with that of the palace of Yudhisthira built by Maya Danava. There Duryodhana is also deceived in the same way (Mahabharata, 2.47.1-15). But there is bitterness and deliberate ridiculing of Duryodhana while in the Paumacariya it is a pure humour. Sentiment of Quietism :-On account of the religious nature of the epic, the idea of renunciation has been the chief preoccupation of the poet. It is the only possible way that leads to real happiness which is a state of tranquility-calming down of all passions and desires. It is this sentiment of quietism that dominates the whole work. Other sentiments like that of Srngara, Vira, Karuna, Bibhatsa etc. are there but they finally resolve into a feeling of detachment from the world. Soul freed from passions gets peace "the seas are calm when the winds are no more. "" His At 5.178-201 Sagara bemoans the death of his sons. ministers console him emphasising the ephemeral nature of life. Human ralations are as temporary as the refuge of the birds in a bough for a night. Life is like rainbow, colourful yet temporary, short lived like foam, deceptive like dreams, and fleeting like lightning. It is bound to fade as a flower fadeth. It is like a bubble on the surface of time. Neither wisdom nor strength, nor riches are armour against death. Sagar perceives that life is languishing under the dark shade of sorrow. This perception results in 'nirveda'-indifference to worldly life. The sentiment of indifference here is intense. It has been gradually and consistently built up.

LITERARY EVALUATION 609 At 29.20-23 there is (already quoted) an effective description of old age and extreme decreptitude of Dasaratha's Kancuki. This kindles in Dasaratha a desire for renouncing the world. Again at 31.37 he is acquainted with his previous birth by some muni and at 31.43-49 he finds that in life there is unrest, lack of peace as a result of Karmas, so he decides to shake off the shackles of worldly life. There is a gradual enlightenment and consummation of 'nirveda'. King Vijayaparvata who has got a deep rooted lust for life is instructed at 39.53-61 by a muni. The latter tries to create in him the feeling of repugnance against life in flesh by stressing the fact that human body is an accumulation of dirts. The performance of physical functions is abominable. Mind keeps swerving towards the physical life like an unruly elephant. It needs be controlled by the 'ankusa' of wisdom and strength of detachment. Finally the seeds of nirveda are sown in the king and he prepares for renunciation. At 106.15-46 the disappointment of Laksamana's sons in the 'svayamvara' of Mandakini and Candramukhi results in their renouncing the world. At first they are hostile to Lavana and Ankusa who have been selected. But later their mother teaches them that search for happiness in worldly life is searching for a kernel in the trunk (106.22) of a plaintain tree. At this Laksmana's sons get enlightened. Now they cannot be held back by various temptations of luxuries and comforts that a kingly life affords. They have realised that the worldly life is like a sea full of sufferings which constitute its water. There are crocodiles of passions, waves of evil modes of existence and eddies of birth and death¹. They finally renounce the world. At 102.36-46 after her fire ordeal Sita realises the transitory character of human relations. She develops an aversion to the 1. bandhana sinehana dipro, punaravi bhogesu darunam satto | 39 , puriso pavai dukkham cirakalam dihasamsare || dukkha salilavagadhe, kasayagahukkade bhavavatte | ghanadoggaiviccie, jaramarana kilesakallole || eyarise mahayasa, bhamiya samsarasayare he | dukhai anuhavanta, kahakahavi iham samuttisna || samsariyadukkhanam, bhiya jaramarana vippasroganam | Agazag ang gA, qoquei fofught you 11 209.80-83

610 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM rainbow, foam or bubble. She established in quietude. Inspite rooted unrest in life which is like blames her own karmas. She is of Rama's request to her to continue worldly life, she renounces it. At 108.23f Hanu is led to the feeling of detachment on observing the dark sky devoid of any splendour in absence of stars and moon. He realises that death is all pervading, that men are taken in a trap laid by women as the elephants are entrapped by sheelephants. The world is like a fruit of Kimpaka seemingly beautiful but bitter in taste¹. At 113.44-52 Rama realises his folly when he recovers from madness which was rooted in the delusion of excessive affection for Laksmana. He at once realises the falseness of human relations and gets enlightened. The feeling of 'nirveda' intensifies and he renounces the world. even a There are several spots where a defeat (13.44-47) or triumph (4.49-51) and a sense of despair (75.80-82; 82.12) or frustration at the unholy human nature (39.96; 105.108) leads to the feeling of nirveda. The scenes at such spots finally gives an effect of quietude though the sentiment is not gradually and elaborately worked out. The poet seems to be quite at home in working out the sentiment of quietude. It is here that he has poured out the striking similes and metaphors. Figures of Speech The work is resplendant with Upamas (similes) and Rupakas (metaphors). Those occurring in the preceding section have been already pointed out. Some other striking similes and metaphors as well as fancies can be noted as follows : Upama: The head that is not devoted to the religion is like the covering of a coconut (1.20) and the tongue that does not praise religion is only a knife having the sharp edge of evil speech (1.25). Anjana in her anguish is like a lotus struck with snow-fall (16.59), 1. mahilakarenuyanam, luddho gharavariniyala padibaddho | anuhava tattha dukkham, purisaga vammahasatto || pasena pamjarerana ya, bajjhanti cauppaya ya pakkhi ya | ze gazqiatoi, azi gfear fsforeafa 11 kimpaga phalasariccha, bhoga pamuhe havanti gunamahura | te ceva u pariname, jayanti visamavisasarisa || 108 .26-31

LITERARY EVALUATION 611 Vasantamala afraid of the lion in the forest, moving about Anjana is like a Kurali (osprey bird 17.79). Kaikeyi in separation of her son, Bharata, who has renounced the world is like a cow separated from the calf (83.9) Sita comes out shining from the fire pit as pure gold (101.46). Hanumat encircled by the Raksasas is like the sun surrounded by dark clouds (53.81). Fair damsel embracing the dead body of Ravana is like lightning around the Anjanagiri (74.14). Sita clasping Rama at Sita the time of their reunion at Lanka is like a Kanakalata about a Kalpataru (76.16). Angada's creating commotion among the damsels of Ravana is like a bull in a cow-pen (68.35). There are 'Malopamas' at 17.79-80 and 7.60 when various qualities of Sramanas and king Ratnasrava are mentioned respectively. Rupaka Metaphors also are found in abundance. Disrespectful words uttered by Batuka Kapila to Rama are fire (35.10). Exiled Anjana's newly born babe is the rising sun (17.89). There are 'Sanga-rupakas' in the description of the spring-season as a lion and various vegetations compiled together as the limbs of that animal (92.6-8), in the description of the world as the sea (106.41-42)¹ and the lake as the sky (30.2) 2. The last description has point to point similarity with a similar description in the Rtusamhara of Kalidasa at 3.213. There are 'Paramparita-rupakas' also. Sita is a flame and Ravana a moth is going to seek his ruin in her (46.7); Sita is moon-faced. Ravana needs the water of her eyes to quench the fire of his desire¹. Darkness of ignorance is allayed by the light of enlightenment (3.13); Jina is the sun for the darkness of delusion and is the moon for the lilies of 'bhavya-Jivas' (3.101); Pavananjaya is bitten by the serpent of cupid and is overpowered by the poison of separation. glance at Anjana would be a suitable antedote (15.49). 1. drstavya nam0 10 . 2. vavagayaghanasevalam, sasihamsam dhavalatarayakusumam | logassa kuranai pii, nabhasalilam pecchiu sarae ||30 .2 Only a 3. sphutakumudacitanam rajahamsasritanam marakatamanibhasa varina bhusitanam | sriyamatisayarupam vyomatoyasayanam vahati vigatamegham candrataravakirnam || 4. hohi pasanna sudari, mam ditthi dehi somasasivayane | jena mayananalo me, pasamai tuha cakkhusalilenam || 46 .2 rtu0 sam0 3 .21

612 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM There is a mixture of Sanga and Paramparita Rupaka at 117.36,37,40. In describing the beauty of Sita the poet has heaped similes and metaphors (26.99-101) 2 which are conventional. Besides that, similes and metaphors like Rati and Ananga for beautiful couples (6. 167; 28.123), the sun for radiance (5.141; 9.90), the moon for agreeableness (7.60), the cooing of peacocks for agreeable sound (6.116), the torrents of rain for showering of arrows (10.59;27.29), the earth for forgiveness, wind for detachment, sky for clarity, sea for sobriety, mountain for patience, birds for non amassing nature ( 14.79- 80;68.45), Vrsabha (bull) for excellence (2.21; 4.33;112.1) either in penance or valour, lion for patience and dauntless courage (2.94; 7.164), bubble, lightning and dream for ephemeral nature of life and worldly things (1.17; 39.54 ) and heaven and heavenly beings for beauty (3.159;6.48,219;7.155;34.15;73.29 and 102.51) are often repeated. Thus we find that our poet in generally using popular, traditional and Puranic material for the embellishment of his work. Utpreksa : - There are examples of fancy (Utpreksa ) also. Thick darkness palls the world as if the evil nature of the wicked supersedes the nability of the good 2 (2.100). The sun set as if he were afraid of the befalling calamity (39.23), or he fled away as if he were unable to bear the sight of Sita's fire-ordeal ( 102.9). occurs. Mudralankara:-In the ending verse of every canto word 'Vimala' The poet has deliberately³ introduced his name (2.119). It is here that we come across a device which has been so employed for the first time. It is called Mudrala kara. 1. varakamalapattanayana, komuirayaniyarasarisa muhasoha | kundadalasarisadasana, dadimaphullaharacchaya || komala bahala iya, rattasoujjalabhakarajuyala | karayala sugejjhamajjha, vitthisnaniyambakarabhoru || rattuppalasamacalarana, komuharayaniyarakiranasamghaya | ohasiu va najjai, rayaniya ram caiva kantie ||26 .66 - 101 2. ucchurai tamo gayane, mailanto disivahe kasinavanno | sajjanacariujjoyam najjai ta dujjaranasahavo ||2 .100 3. barakamalanibaddha niggayalisamatta, mahurasaraninayaccantaramma padesa | tarupavanavalagga puskarenu muyanta, vimalakirana mantaiccabhasa visuddha || 2 . 116

LITERARY EVALUATION 613 A few examples of other figures of speech can be traced in the work as follows:Vyatireka can be traced at 26:101 in the statement that Sita in comeliness supersedes the moon¹. Sandeha is found at 94.106.7. Sita is left alone in the terrible forest. The soldiers of Vajrajangha are dumb-found at the sudden sight of this divine beauty who may be a cursed divine damsel or the Rati separated from Kamadeva 2. At 102.10-11 in the fire-ordeal scene the sudden blaze of fire leads one to suspect that a thousand suns shine simultaneously or a mountain of chaos raises its head suddenly from under the earth³. Bhrantimana is exemplified in Sita's face being mistaken' by the honey bees for a lotus flower at 42.21. Udaharana-There are many popular illustrations (Udaharana) here and there. They add to the effectiveness and exact comprehension of the statements concerned. There can be no rain without clouds or no plant without seed. Similarly there cannot be any happiness without the practice of religion (4.26 ). Even many soldiers cannot achieve triumph without a chief as the most starry night is without the moon*. Birds shelter in a bough for a night and desert it in the morning so is the case with human relationship (5.184). The fire cannot be quenched with fuels similarly the desires cannot be satiated by indulging into worldly pleasures ( 80.47; 103.73 ). Only a fool can burn sandal-wood for getting ashes (4.50 ) or grind the pearls for getting the thread so is the case with a person who spoils his valuable life in the pursuit of wordly pleasures and rejects the attainment of salvation. 1. drstavya nam0 16 . 2. kim hojja devakanna, suravaisavena mahiyale padiya | kusumauhassa kimva, kuviya ya rai ihoinna || evam saviyakkamana, navi te vaccanti tattha purahutta | savve vibhaubvigga, vaggibhuyaya citthanti || 64 .106-107 3. dhagadhagadhagentasaddo, pajjali huyavaho karanayavasno | gauyaparimanasu ya, jalasu naham padivento || ki hojja dinayarasayam, samuggayam kim va mahiyalam bhetu m | uppayanagavarindo, viniggo dusahapayavo ||102 .10-11 4. evam pahanena virana na kajjam, uvei siddhi vavasijjamaranam | jaha nisa rikkhagahanuvanna na hoi joha | vimalam suhina || 57 .36

614 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM Drstanta:-When a thread can pass through a diamond which has already been bored by a diamond-cutter then why not the poet can reproduce easily what has already been narrated by the omniscient¹. It can be compared with that in the Raghuvamsa². Crows can do no harm to the Garuda. Can a lion not subdue even an agitated elephant ? (8.45). Drops gradually amass into the sea and knowledge also reaches perfection gradually (14.124). Bharata not accept the suzerainty of Ativirya, how can a lion live under a jackal ? (37.21) Nidarsana: If human life is not employed in the practice of religion it is like throwing away a piece of diamond which is in one's hand (288). Those who contaminate penance by assigning certain object to it exchange diamond for vegetables (103.110), destrory camphor to plant Kodrava plant, smash gem for the thread (103.111 ) and burn sandal for the sake of ashes (103. 112). Sumalin's adventure against Indra is a frog playing in the mouth of serpent (8.72 ) . Laksmana's insistance to keep his sons in the harness of worldly glory is pushing one knowingly into a dark abyss (106.37 ). Persons attached to worldly pleasures leaving aside moral discipline and penance exchange a diamond for a cowrie (118.107). Arthantaranyasa : -- Both Sugriva and Rama's wives are lost. Sugriva seeks Rama's help assuming that there is friendship between. persons put in similar circumstances³ (47.4-5). Similarly see 113.41; 12.101; 105.106). Prativastupama :-Even the brave meet their death at the exhaustion of their 'punya' as the sun also has to set after having lighted the whole world + (73.35). 1. savvannubhasiyattham, bhananti kano jahagamagunenam | kim vajjasuibhinne, na riyai tantu maharayane || 1 .13 2. athava krtavagdvare vamse'sminpurvasuribhih | mani vajrasamutkirne sutrasyevasti me gatih || raghu0 1 .4 3. cintei vanavaravai, nipro kharadusano rane jenam | vaccami tassa saranam, so vi hu santikarohou || tullavatthana jae, hoi sineho narana niyayam pi | karanavasena so me, kahi pakkham na samdeho ||47 .4-5 4. evam punnavasane turayagayaghadadovamajjhe vi sura, sampatte maccukale asikaranayakara janti nasam || ujjou satesro sayalajayaminam so vi pratthai, bhagu, jae sokkhappanose sa vimalakirano kim na cando uvei |||73 .35

LITERARY EVALUATION 615 Tulyayogita :-King is the source of moral discipline as the mountain is of the river (53.4). One thing that can be noted in the above mentioned examples is that generally the examples are not very much striking and thus these figures of speech remain in a rudimentary stage. Sabdalankaras :-Among Sabdalankaras Onomatopoeia has frequently been used. Anuprasa can be seen (1.1-6; 7.173; 10.53; 28.110; 89.53; 97.22) here and there. There is Yamaka at 28 50 in the word 'guru' and at 96.49 in 'Cakkahara'. At 92.8 the only example of Slesa can be traced in the word 'gayavaiyanam' meaning the elephants (gajapatikanam) and the women in separation (gatapatikanam) from their husbands. The spring season is painful to the latter and the lion to the former (patto Vasantasiho gayavaiyanam bhayam dento). Slesa is based on the metaphor 'spring lion' 'Vasantasiha"¹. Maxims Proverbs and Sayings The poet has specially been preoccupied with a sense of moral values hence he has strewn maxims all over the work :Religion is the strength of the weak (75.18). Non can save the unrighteous (106-36). One is saved from disaster by virtue of his previous good deeds (96.40). The Sramanas, animals, cows, the women, youngsters and the decrepits should not be tortured (35.15). King is the root of social discipline (53.4). Modesty is the ornament of a woman (46.50). Daughters are destined to render their services to another family (6.22). Sons are the supports of the parents (31.97). The brave must not retreat (39.10). The wise should not care for a thing lost (30.35). There are short and pithy statements that are almost proverbial:One's own beauty is adornment enough (7.63). As the king so the subjects (105.106). It is useless to hold a lamp to the sun (70.27). At the time of one's doom wisdom vanishes (53.138). There are metaphorical statements so exact and compact that they almost seem to be popular sayings :- 1. amkollatikkharanakkho malliyaranyano asoyadalajiho | kurabayakaraladasano, sahayarasukesararunisro || kusumarayapijaramgo, sraimuttalayasamusiyakaraggo | patto vasantasiho, gayavaiyanam bhayam dento || 2 .8-6

616 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM To get the treasures of the world but to lose one's eyes (15.86; 26.80). A diamond dropped in the sea (is not to be regained 14.106; 45.34). To dig well when the house is on fire (5.239; 86.60). (See 4.50; 103.110; 111.112; 118.107 already referred to in the preceding lines). CONCLUSION On the basis of the above analysis we may conclude that in the Paumacariya there are the lingering traits of the Puranic style and the embers of the Agama style are dying out. The figures of speech specially those other than the similes, metaphors and onomatopoeia are in their rudimentary stage. Even in the similes and metaphors the poet is mostly conventional, but he has decidedly excelled in bringing out onomatopoeic effects. His claim 'visuddhalaliyakkharaheujuttam' (118.101) is quite justified. The Rasas frequently have failed to reach the culmination which they attain in the ornate works of classical age. The poet has not followed the style of the classical ornate poetry, rather he has deliberately adhered to the popular style so that he might catch the attention of the general people. are elements such of Mahakavya as The work does not fulfil all the requirements of a Mahakavya in so far as subject matter of the story has not become subservient to form i.e. long descriptions of nature and sentiments, but there the theme being that of a Puranic hero, charming descriptions of nature and human world, planning into systematic cantos, 'stuti' in the beginning, 'Asirvacana' at the end of the work and the change of metre at the close of every canto. Thus, Vimalasuri was the first author among the Jainas, who presented a Puranic narrative into the charming poetic style.