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EDUCATION AND ARCHITECTURE F. Flora and Fauna. 417 It has already been mentioned that the sciences of distinguishing flowers, horses and elephants formed the subjects of education (24.6. 7). The rich data regarding the flora and the fauna available in the Paumacariya indicates that the author had good knowledge of the various kinds of vegetations and animals found in the country. Flora: The general idea conveyed by the Paumacariyam about the richvegetation is that the country was covered with large belts of forests in the north as well as in the south. Rama is said to have passed through various forests lying through-out the country. The Paumacariya reveals that not only the hilly regions and the southern plateau but even the alluvial plains of today were rich with forests. The towns abounded in gardens and groves and in their vicinity there could be seen woodlands. Today we find that the natural vegetation has been cleared off by the growing population of the country in order to cultivate the land for the supply of food grains and commercial commodities, still the hilly regions and some other areas retain the heredity of natural woodlands. == The forest is called Adavi-Atavi (32.10) and Mahavana= It is Mahavana (32.42). Mahadavi - Mahatavi meant a big forest. also (39.1) called as Ranna (Aranya). There is no distinction between an Adavi Atavi and a Ranna (94.40; 38.21.22). Some of the forests were so terrific that they have been called Ghora (18.28) or Bhima (32.42). In the rainy season when the wild vegetation cropped up abundantly, the sight of the forest became alarming (Uttasanaa 22.35) on account of the dense trees and the movement of wild beasts and animals. Sometimes the vegetation was destroyed by conflagration (94.40). Besides these forests, the gardens (Arama), parks (Ujjana= Udyana) and groves (Kanana-Kanana) situated outside the towns were also full of rich vegetation (8.267; 15.50; 33.20; 86.33). Sea-shore abounding in vegetation is also referred to (8.261). Then there were the lakes and ponds which abounded in flowery-plants (5.55f; 15.50). The general term used for the entire kingdom of vegetation is 'Vanaspati' (102.93) which can be divided into several classes such as, the trees called as Payava = Padapa (8.26), Taru (33.148) or Rukkha== Vrksa (21.54); the plants or shrubs (Duma=Druma 15.28) and the creepers (Valli, Laya=Lata 39.1). Duma is not strictly used to denote the plants only but it meant the trees also (20.36,44,47). According to their taste the trees have been divided into Titta=Tikta (punjent), Mahura Madhura (sweet), Kaduya-Katuka (bitter 14.43) and 27

418 = A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM Lonarukkha Lavanavrksa (saltish 42.7). The juicy tree is called Khirarukkha Ksira-vrksa (34.37). Various parts of tree are referred to as Vidava Vitapa (twig or branch); Pallava = leaves (3 50; 33.18); Puspa flowers (92.6); Phala (fruits 2.33); Pavala (Pravala 92.6); Kisalaya (new shoots). The vegetable kingdom may be dealt under different heads, namely trees, plants, climbers or creepers, grass, reeds and acquatic plants. Trees: A large variety of trees have been mentioned in the PGV. Some of them whose fruits big or small were commonly used as food articles were the Mango: Magnifera Indica (Amba Amra 42. 7, = Sahayara Sahakara 21.49, Sahara and Cuya=Cuta 53.79) which grew richly in Lanka, Dandakaranya and on the Vasantagiri; the Bread fruit: Artocarpus Integrifalia (Phanasa Panasa) which grew in the Dandaka forest (41. 9), Pariyatra 33. 2 and Lanka (46. 74); the Orange (Naranga) which grew in the Dandaka (41.9) and Lauka (46. 74); the Pomegranate (Dadima) which grew in the Dandakaranya (42.6) and the Gangetic-highlands (21. 48); the Rose-apple: Eugenia Jambolana (Jambu 20. 39); the Banana: Musa Sapientum (Kayali - Kadali) which grew wildly in the Dandaka (42. 9); the Wood-apple: Aegle Marmelos (Villa Bilva) which was found in the Dandaka (42. 6) and Lanka (53. 79); and the Clove-(Lavanga) which grew largely in the Vanaradiva (6. 41). = The trees of the saltish soil which generally grew in the belts of forests lying in the vicinity of the sea-coasts were the different species of the palm-tree; the Coconut-tree (Naliera or Nalieri = Nalikera) and the Date: Phoenix sylvestris (Khajjura or Khajjuri=Kharjura) grew in the Dandaka forest (41. 9; 42. 9) and Laika (53. 79); the Tan-palm: Borassus flabelliformis or the Palmyra (Tala) grew richly in the Dandaka forest (42.9); the Areca-catechu: Puyapphali - Pugaphali grew abundantly in Lanka (53. 79); and the Punnaga, calophyllum grew in Lanka and Dandakaranna (6. 101, 53. 79; 46. 74; 42. 6). The fig-trees belong to the class of the trees having bigger girth. They are resinous and there is a reference to the Khira-rukkha (KsiraVrksa 34. 37) in the Paumacariya They were the Vada (Vata or Nyagrodha 53. 79; 36. 29; 33. 18)-Ficus Indica or Banyan tree; the Udumbara: Ficus Glomerata which were very common in the Pariyatra (33. 2), Avantidesa (33. 18), Dandakaranya (42. 6. 7), the Deccan plateau and Lanka (36. 29); and the Asattha (asvattha): Ficus religiosa which grew in Dandakaranya (42. 6). All these trees are mighty and provide abundant shade. They bear fig fruits and their bark yields a resinous

EDUCATION AND ARCHITECTURE 419 milky juice. They are regarded as sacred and are called Caitya trees in the Indian literature. in Then there was a large number of other trees which grew wild forests or in the cultivated gardens. They may be dealt with according to the places where they grew in abundance:- : The Padmaudyana of Lanka (53. 79) and the Dandaka (42. 6) forest abounded in the Kujjaya (Kubjaka¹): Rosa moschato, Campaya (Campaka): Michelia Campaka which bears yellow fragrant flowers, Tilaya (Tilaka): Symplocos recemosa which bears beautiful fragrant flowers during the spring season and Ankolla (Ankotha²): Alangium Hexapetalum. The Vasantagiri (21.46), the highland of the northern plains situated some where on the route between Hastinapura and Saketa, abounded in the following trees which blossomed in the spring season Rattasoya (Raktasoka): a species of Asoka (Saroea Indica-Jonesia Asoka) called red Asoka; Kimsuya (Kimsuka): Butea frondosa which bears beautiful flowers without smell and is ordinarily the common Palasa Palasa (Palasa 28.109): Butea frondosa which bears beautiful flowers redder than Kimsuka and Ajjuna (Arjuna): Terminalia Arjuna, a species of the teak tree which is also mentioned to be growing in the interior of the Dandaka forest (42. 6) and in the Padmaudyana of Lanka (53. 79). The Padmaudyana of Lanka (58. 79), the slopes of the Vasantagiri (21. 49) and the Vasantatilakaudayana of Saketa (3. 134) flourished in the Asoya (Jonesia Asoka) which bears magnificent red flowers; the Punnaga: Rottleria Tinetoria; the Naga: Roxhurghii, the Baula (Bakula) mimusaps Elengi; the Tilaya (Tilaka) and the Campaya (Campka). : Mesua Further the Padmaudyana of Lanka (53.70) was richly vegetated with the Kunda trees, which bear white aud delicate flowers; the Mandara coral tree, Erythrina Indica, which is referred to in the ancient Indian literature as one of the five trees of paradise; the Ruddakkha (Rudraksa): Elacocarpus Ganitrus whose berry is used for making rosary; the Devadaru: Pinus Deodara, a gigantic pine tree very common to the Himalayan mountains; the Dhayai (Dhataki): Grislea Tomentosa; the Rayani (Rajadani): Buchanania Latifolia; the Padali (Patala): Bignonia suaveolens; the Vamha (Brahman) Butea 1, The A Sanskrit English Dictionary by Sir Monier Monier-Williams. calls it a plant while the Paia-sadda-mahannavo calli it a tree. The Paumacariya includes it among the trees. 2. Ibid. 3. India in Kalidasa; (B.S. Upadhyaya) 1947, p. 39,

420 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM frondosa or Ficus Glomerata; and the Sattavanna (Saphaparna): Alstonia Scholaris which has seven leaves on its stalk. The interior of the Dandaka forest abounded in (42.6f) the Dhava: Mimosa Hexandra; the Sirisa (Sirisa): Acacia Sirisa; the Khaira: Khadira, Acacia catechu; the Saga (Saka): Accasia Sirissa, the teak tree; the Dhammana; Grewia Elastica; the Sarala: Pinus Deodara, a variety of pine tree; the Kayamba (Kadamba), Nauclea Cadamba; the Ambadaya (Amrataka): the Hog Plum, Spondias Mangifera; the Kavittha (Kapittha): Feronia Elephantum; the Tinduga (Tinduka): Diospyros embryopteris; the Nimba: Azadirachta Indica; the Nandi, Anogeissus Latifolia (20.42) and the Aimuttaya (Atimuktaka): the Harimantha, Premna Spinosa. Stray references are made to the Kimpaga (Kimpaka 33.42;7.10): Trichosanthes Palmata; Kurabaya (Kurabaka): red Barleria Crila; Kudaya (Kutaja 11.119): Wrightia antidysenterica; Araluga (Aratu:) Colosanthes Indica; Sami (Sami): Mimosa Suma; Bayari (Badari): (Sami): Jujube tree; Maullingi (Matulingi): citron-tree; Inguya (Inguda): Terminalia catappa; Candana (21.54): Sandal-tree, richly available in the Malaya region; Kapparukkha (Kalpavrksa 3.35), a desire fulfilling tree; Indataru (Indrataru 20.29): Teriminalia Arjuna; Mallidduma (Mallidruma 20.35) and Dahivanna (Dadhi parna 20.41) Feroni elephantum. Plants: Many species of plants are mentioned in the Paumacariyam. They are as follows:- The Jasmine plants which flourished in the Padmaudyana of Lanka (53.79) are the Malai (Malati), Jasminum Grandi florum; Juhiya (yuthika), Jasminum Auriculatum; Malliya (Mallika), Jasminum Zambac; Sattali (Saptala or Navamallika), Arabian Jasmine; Kundalaya (Kundalata), Jasminum species, white and delicate, referred to be growing on the Vasantagiri (21.49) also. Other flower-bearing plants are the Kandali; Sinduvara: Vitex Negundo; Piyangu (Priyangu), Aglaia odorata; and Kujjaya (Kubjaka) which is included among the plants and mentioned to be growing in Lanka, Padmaudyana and Dandaka (42.8) forest. Keyari (?) (Ketaki) flourished in the Dandaka (42.9). It is Pandanus odoratissimus, a green plant with needle-pointed blades and bears strong smelling flowers. Creepers The followring are creepers Kundalata referred to in the Paumacariya :-Kundalaya (21.49); Sinduvara (53.79); Tumba (29.24) or gourd Lagenaria vulgaris; Dakkha (Draksa- 53.79), the vine

EDUCATION AND ARCHITECTURE 421 creeper abundantly growing in the Padmaudyana of Lanka and Tambollavalli (Tambula 46.72), the betel creeper. The following are the species of vegetation which have not been identified. Cilla; The Paia-sadda-mahannavo calls it a tree. The Paumacariya refers to it as used for worshipping the Jinas (66.19); Kadaha (Kataha); Mayai; Kancanara (Kancanara); Korintaya (Korantaka); and Rattakorintaya which grew in the Padmaudyana of Lanka (53.79). Hila druma growing on the Vasantagiri is referred to at 21.48. Then the Mallidduma (Mallidruma 23.35), Kanayalaya (Kanakalata 36.16), Candanalaya (53.67) and Sirimanjari (27.43) are also referred to. Grass The grass is called Tana (Trna) in the general sense. It is said that in the rainy season the land was decked all round with green grass (hariyatana samalangi 11.119). It formed the main fodder of the animals which are mentioned as Tanacari (N.29). There is an allusion to Kusa grass, here called as Dabbha (Darbha 18.18). It is Poa Cynosuroides whose leaves are very long and sharp pointed. Kasa (Kasa) Saccharum Spontaneum is a kind of long grass which blossoms in the autumn season and bears white Its flowers are compared with : flowers. It is used for roofs and mats. the grey hairs of an old person (21.76). The example of lofty grass is the Vamsa (43.21) or Venu (63.39). It is the common bamboo referred to be growing wildly in the Dandaka forest (43.21) and in the Sihaninada Atavi (94.44). The Vamsagiri (39.4) situated in the vicinity of the Dandakaranya seems to be very abundantly flourishing in the bamboos. Flowers The Paumacariya mentions two types of flowers (Jaiayathalaya kusuma 12.37) i. e. of water and of land. The latter variety has already been dealt with in the preceding pages. It may be noted that the flowers of various colours have been referred to. Generally they are mentioned to be of five types (6.20 Kusumapancavannehi). They are the (siya, dhavala) white (nila) blue, (hariya) green, (rattaruna) red and (yellow) flowers (42.13). Now we take up the account of the flowers of winter or acquatic plants. They are mentioned to be growing abundantly in the inland waters such as rivers (Narmada 10.39, Jahnavi 94.50, Karnarava 42.20), lakes (Manasa 16.46 and other lakes in the southern plateau land 42.11), ponds, pools and tanks (Dihiyavavi, situated in the parks & gardens of the cities 78.54; 5.55). As a water flower, the lotus has been widely mentioned. Its many names given in the Paumacariya are: Kamala (42.11), Pankaya

422 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM (Pankaja 5.55), Uppala (Utpala 78.55), Aravinda (46.3) and Nalini (94.50). It is said that the lotuses closed at the time of sun-set (2.99). There are several references to Pauma (Padma 24.7) which belongs to this type of lotuses. Then there is the Kumuda which belongs to the other variety (43.2) called the water-lily. The species of the former type of lotuses are : Pundaria (Pundarika), the white one (78.54); Pauma uppala (24.7), the blue one (Indivara ghana sama 38.30). The species of the other type of lotuses is Kuvalaya (16.38), the blue one which opens at night. The surface of a pond completely covered with lotuses is called either Kamalinivana (53.80) or Paumasara (15 50). Besides the lotus plants, the Paumacariya refers to the Sevala (Saivala) which disappeared on the advent of Sarad-kala (30.2). It is the moss which grows abundantly over the surface of the water during the rainy season. Fauna :-The author has taken notice of the animal life while describing the forest regions, hilly-tracts, gardens and groves, lakes and other water-pools. sea-shores, the banks of the rivers, While referring to the social aspect of the life of the people, the author has mentioned some domestic animals and pleasing birds. Besides that many animal creatures have found an important place in the narratives dealing with the previous births of the characters of the main story. The Karma-theory which is an indispensable feature of Jainism has connected the previous lives of the characters with the animal creatures¹ and with the working of their passions reared on enmity and There are occasions affection just on the lines of the human nature. when the animals have been referred to in poetic similes 2. Further in accordance with the belief of the people, the animals have been mentioned as foreboding" good or evil. The general term used for the whole kingdom of animals is the Tiriya (5.101; 14.28) or Tirikhha (Tirya 2.59), The animal life can be divided into the categories of beasts (Pasuya 11.70; 14.29; or Cauppaya 46.63), birds (Pakkhi 42.15; 117.16 or Sauna 16.50), reptiles (Sarissava 20.92), acquatic animals ( Jalayara 26.40) and small creatures (Kida 1.26 or Jantu 6.137). Other mode of classification can also be discerned from the words used in the work. Thus they can be put as the animals feeding upon other creatures (Jivahara 14.17) called beasts of prey (Savaya 3.82; 17.49; 42.12) or the carnivorous animals 1. 50.9; 82.38, 51, 88.6; 103.18-20. 2. 2.16-18; 3.3; 6.175; 8.176; 178; 42.18; 100.58. 3. 7.17; 34.36-37.

EDUCATION AND ARCHITECTURE 423 (Kavvayasatta 22.35) and those consuming grass (Tanacari 14.29), called herbivorous animals. In the following lines the animal life is studied under various heads such as the wild beasts, domestic animals, reptiles, acquatic animals birds and finally the worms and insects. Wild-Beasts-The wild life is said so be infesting the forests of Pariyatra (32.10), Citrakuta (33.6f), Dandaka (42.10) and Simhaninada as well as the mountains of Mandara (3.78), Astapada (Kailasa 9 53, 57) and other hills (32.15). Among the wild beasts mentioned in the Paumacariya, Saraha (Sarabha) also called as Sardula or Astapada is stronger than a lion (17.82) and an elephant (33.6). It is a fabulous animal supposed to have eight legs and to be inhabiting the snowy mountains. The lion is called as Pancamuha (Pancamukha 96.14), Siha (Simha 94.47), Hari (32.10), Kesari (Kesarin 42.10), Mayaraya (2.17) or the king of the beasts (Raya savvapasavanam 14. 104), and an inherent enemy of dear (2.116). The lioness (Sihi or Simhini) and her cubs (Kisora) are referred to (78. 28). The tiger (Vaggha = Vyaghra 56.44); the hyaena (Traccha=Taraksa 42.13); the hunting leopard (Cittaya 14. 17); the boar (Varaha 3. 82) or Dadhi (Damstrin 103. 19); Vaya=Vrka (118.7), the Jackal (Kolhuya 3.79), Jumbuya (Jambuka 15. 54), Siyala (Srgala 22. 81 or Gomau 71.26); the Yak (Camara 32. 10); a wild variety of buffalo 94.105 or Gavala 88. 6; and the bear (Accha = Rksa 42. 12, Bhalla 14.17.32.15) or Riccha 94.45 are mentioned. The deer is called Harina (33.8), Maya (Mrga 94.41), Kuranga (103.19), Sarauga (82.20), Ruru (103.20) or Rohiya (Rohita 42.12). Maya (Mrga) meant also the beasts in general (2.17). The first two are the general terms for the deer while the remaining four are the different varieties of deer. Harini, the doe is also referred to (16.3), the hare (Sasaya = Sasaka 42.12; 58.9; 82.38) and the monkey (Pavangama Plavangama 9.132, Vanara 94.41, Plavaga 14.18 or Hari 3.12) also find references. = Domestic Animals:-The elephatnt is called Hatthi (Hastin 2.17), Mayanga (Matanga 96. 14), Gaya (Gaja 3. 61), Kunjara (2111), Kari (Karin 42.18) or Varana (4.59). References to both the types of elephant i. e. the wild (94.105; 33.6) and the domestic (4.2.12; 32.10; 9.59) are available The tame elephants were used in war (4.59; 12.113). They formed a separate column of the Caurangabala (Caturangabala in the battlefield (46.24; 90.13;). 8.242) and were of immense use The kings preferred its ride in the battle (10.61, 64) or in the public processions (3.2; 77.2). Regular training was given to the princes

424 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM in controlling and taming (8.218, 223) the turbulent and wild elephants. It was very common conveyance of the royal persons. (16.44; 76. 11). Kings preferred the best species of the elephant (lakkhnapasattha 3.2) and for recognising these qualities of elephants and horses even the princess were given special training (24. 6). The Bhuvanalamkara elephant of Ravana (8.215) is said to be seven cubits in height, nine in length and ten in circumference. It was considered to be the best type of elephant¹. The enclosure or the shed where the elephants were maintained by the kings was called Sala (80.63). The divine elephant called Eravana (Airavata) was the conveyance of Devendra (2.38). It is referred to as having four tusks (71.3). The female elephant is called Karenu (42.18) or Karini (80.53) and her young ones as Kalaha (Kalabha 78.28). Next to the elephant was the horse who was held in high esteem. It is called Turaya (Turaga 3.74), Turangama (436) or Asa (Asva 5.73). A horse like an elephant constituted one of the 14 gems of Chakravarti kings (4.36). Horses formed a separate column of the Caurangabala of kings (92.52) and were also yoked to chariots for carrying the passengers (94.34). The camel is called Utta (Ustra 14.29), Karaha (Karabha 8.272). The ox is called Vasaha (34.35), Balaya (80.13), Bailla (Balivarda 99.24). The bull-stall (Gottha-Gostha 103.40) is referred to. The donkey is called Khara (99.25) and the ass as Gaddabha (Gardabha 77.112) or Rasaha (Rasabha 71.54). She-buffalo is called Mahisi (Mahisi 3.158), and its male as Mahisa (Mahisa 99.25) who was used as a beast of burden. The cow is called Go (14.29), Godhenu (5.95), Dhenuya (3.46), or Gai (3.158). The wild cows (Arannuya gavina khira 41.8) were found in jungles. The cow pen (Goula= Gokula 5.95) was a place where the cows were kept and sold by the cow-herds (5.95). Mahisi and Utta are specifically referred to as her bivorous animals (Tanacari 14.29). The cow, she-buffalo and the mare (Govasabhavalava 2.2; 80.13) were of immense utility to the people. They were considered as the harbingers of prosperity and wealth, There are references to the goat (Aja 11.26) and the sheep (Mesi= Mesi 41.55). The dog is called Supaya (Sunaka 22.84) or Sana (Svana 2.116). Its young one Kukkura is also refered to (94.80). The cat (Majjara Marjara 32.4); the rat (Musaa-Musaka 5.100) and the cock (Kukkuda-Kukkuta 82.41) are also on record. 1. See Kautilya, II. 31.9. also.

EDUCATION AND ARCHITECTURE 425 : Reptiles -The snake (Sappa-Sarpa 3.46) is called Uraga (28.106) or Mahoraga (14. 18), Naga (39. 16), Ahi (48.22), Pannaya= Pannaga (28. 108), Bhuyanga (Bhujanga 41. 23). Ghonasa = Ghonasa (39.17), a kind of serpent is mentioned to be found in the hilly region. The Ayagara Ajagara (63. 54) a huge snake used to devour even the human beings. The Asivisa=Asivisa (70. 16), and Visahara - Visadhara (50.13) denote the venomous character of reptiles. 嗉嬥紜 Other small creatures which are mentioned in the Paumacariya are scorpion Vinchi (Vrscika 39.17), the bigh lizard (Gohera-Godhera 58. 92) and the mungoose (Naula-Nakula 96. 14). Acquatic Animals :-The common sites of these creatures were the ocean, lakes and rivers. The Indian ocean (Mahasamudda) and the Gambhira river abounded in the rapacious marine animals (Gaha Graha 6. 37; 32. 11). The Indian ocean (Lavana-jala) is further referred to be abounding in fishes (Jhasa=Jhasa), sea nonsters (Mayara = Makara) and tortoises (Kacchaha). The water elephant (Jala-hatthi) hastin is referred to be creating nuisance in the Narmada. The toroise is called Kumma (Kurma 2. 18). The Dolphin (Simsumara = Sisumara 14. 17; 82. 42) and the small fish (Mina-Mina 17. 114) are also referred to. The Timi (14. 17) is a kind of Whale or a fabulous fish a fabulous fish of enormous size. Besides them the Jalavaha (a watery insect 88.6) and Jaluga, the leech (1. 24) are referred to. Tantuya=Tantuka (14. 17) is an aquatic serpent. The bony-covers of some acquatic insects are mentioned. They are the conch-shell (Sankha-Sankha 8. 259), snail-shell (Sippi= Sukti 8. 259 or sutti 1. 24) and the oyster-shell (Sambukka = Sambuka 1. 24). The jumping frog could be seen (Daddura-Dardura 82. 38) cropping up in the rainy season (29. 43) at various places. Birds The woodlands, gardens and watery-places were the common sites where a variety of birds could be seen. The Peaocock is called Mora (Mayura 82. 38), Maura (29. 34) or Barahina (Barbin 28.20) and the cuckoo as Koila-Kokila (15.28). Vappiha? (100.110) or Cataka is also a kind of cuckoo. The parrot is called Suga (100. 58). Allusions to the taming of birds (pakkhi va panjarattho 11.84) and to the Indian falcon or hawk (Sena = Syena 8. 79) are made. The vulture (Giddha) is referred to as the consumer of flesh (22. 84) and hovering over the dead bodies lying in the battlefield (71. 26). The Garuda (Jadagi=Jatayu 44. 44, Jatau 40. 40) is a fabulous and mythical bird but here the Giddha and the Garuda are identical. It is called the king of birds (Pakkhinana raya 14. 104) and the enemy of

426 A CRITICAL STUDY OF PAUMACARIYAM = snakes (50.13). The owl (Uluya=Uluka 97.24), the crow (Kaa - Kaka 82. 40, Vayasa 71. 26); Sayavatta=Satapatra (7. 17), a bird of number-less feathers; Vanjula (14. 18); Pingala (105.59) and Padippavaga (Pariplavaka 14.18), a kind of birds, are also referred to. The above mentioned are the birds living on land. The acquatic birds which lived mostly in the vicinity of the water are also referred to. Cakravaka (Cakkaya), the goose (Hamsa) and the crane (Sarasa) are referred to be inhabiting the Manasa lake (16. 47) and the banks of the Narmada (34. 32; 10. 32). The habitual disunion of the pair of Cakravaka birds at the time of the closing of the day is referred to (2. 99). Hamsa and Sarasa were visible on the shore of the Lavana ocean (8. 260). The dragging of the Hamsa to such a hot temperate zone seems to be conventional because it is generally believed to be a native of the Manasa lake. It migrates to the south in the winter season. The Kala-hamsa is the Raja-hamsa (42. 15). The young ones of a swan are mentioned as Hamsapoyaa-Hamsapotaka (30. 72). The pleasant gait of the goose is often compared with that of a young lady in the Indian literaure and our poet also has not missed it (6. 175). The crane was considered to be a bird of ill omen (7. 17). Balaya = Balaka (14. 18) is the other name of Sarasa. It is referred to be white in colour (39. 4). The Kurara (82. 38), Kurula (14. 18) or Kurali (female 17. 79) is the osprey, a kind of solitary bird which is considered to be timid. Our poet has referred to it with the same trait (17. 79). Worms and Insects:-Ali (33. 9) is a smaller variety of the bee. The bigger bee is the Bhamara (Bhramara 16. 47) or the Bhinga (Bhruga 33. 148). The honeybee (Mahuyara= Madhukara 92. 9; 15. 29; 17. 90; 21. 48) and its female species, Mahuyari = Mahukari are also mentioned (3.81). The flies (Macchi-Maksika 103.25), the moth (Payanga= Patanga 103.25), the mosquitoes (Masaga = Masaka 30.108) are also on the record. Then there are general references to the worms such as Kida - Kita (1.26) of teeth or of latrine (74.38) or Kimikula = Krmikula (39.55) of the body. Maivaha (Matrvaha 5.211) is a kind of small insect and is referred to have been crushed under the feet of an elephant.