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ARGUMENT Siva is not only an extremely important Hindu god, but he is in many ways the most uniquely Indian god of them all. Therefore it is not a mere metaphor to affirm that his mythology and cult lie at the very heart of Indian Spirituality. The mythological paradoxes that wrap his personality, viz. the paradox of Siva the erotic-ascetic (i.e. the great ascetic is the god of phallus), Siva the Creator and Destroyer, life and death etc., have supplied the philosophicalthinking to point out the universal coincidentia oppositorum. The so-called opposing stands of Siva's nature have been resolved and accepted as aspects of one unitary nature. Thus, the Siva of Brahmin philosophy is predominantly ascetic, while the siva of tantric tradition is predominantly sexual, in his dual aspect: Siva Sakti (W.D.O'Flaherty Asceticism and Broticism in the Mythology of siva, London, 1973, I, 1). We must introduce a certain perspective into this statement. Emphasizing his virile and sexual function, Siva stands for vital energy pervading the whole cosmos in perpetual formation. On the contrary, his asceticism symbolises the uncreated state. Siva's sexual function is a metaphor characterizing ontogenetic actualisation of his potential state which is imagined as asceticism. In this relationship, the uncreated, and hence potential aspect, prevails upon the creative activity at least from two points of view. Only the period of great tapasis able to ensure successfully the creative process and, on the other hand, creation means the loss of primordial equilibrium, consequently, a degradation. The whole Saiva tantric practice aims lastly to recover the uncreated state where Siva is identical with himself only.

- 7 Failure to connect Siva with the Vedic gods Indra, Prajapati and Agni led to the assumption that the sexual elements of his cult were pre-aryan. In the same way, the obvious correspondence between Siva's mystical ambiguity and tantric procedures led some scholars to seek the origins of tantra on the early development of Indian civilization as it was revealed in the indua Valley (c. 2000 B.C.) (Mircea Eliade Yoga, Immortality and Freedom, New-York, 1958, p. 354358). The phallic emblem of Siva as found in the ruins of Harappa and Mohenjodaro was certainly a dominant element of religion at that time. Among material proofs to support this view, there were four pieces of great significance: a rectangular terracotta plate which wears the image of an ithyphallic god sitting in padmasana and surrounded by animals, a conical terracotta object with a rounded top which most probably represents a phallus, a large thick ring representing a yoni and a receptacle for holy water (caranamrtakunda). These are peremptory evidences of such a worship of Siva and Sakti, main tantric deities. The Saiva philosophy is an outgrowth of religion. As we know, it highly influenced other systems of Indian philosophy like Vaisesika, Nyaya and the grammatical schools of Kashmir. Eight systems of Saiva philosophy have been traced so far. In the Tantraloka, Abhinavagupta classified all the Saiva philosophical tendencies into three main branches: dualism (dvaita), dualism-cum-monism (dvaitadvaita) and monism (advaita), which could be also a mantainable view on the topic in so far as the three systems were based upon ten, eighteen and sixty-four Saivagamas. Concerning the agamas, their origin, classification, outlook etc.,

8 - many theories have been suggested so far, as usually happens when the peremptory evidence is not available: in this case few of the original texts have come to light. I feel inclined to accept the general classification of agamic literature into three great groups, conformable to the three main istadevatas worshipped: Siva, Sakti and Visnu (Sir John Woodroffe, Sakti and sakta, pp.35). This division is upheld by a good deal of statements found in the Saivite tantras, where the other tantric schools which evolved from the corresponding bulk of agamas are presented like gradual steps toward Saivite teaching. Thus, the Vaisnava tantra is dealing with the mayic world in so far as visnu is ruling only upon the material world. The Sakti tantric branch understands the existent as power and the devotee is to merge into this all-pervading power that creates and destroys, but can not annihilate. The total extinction comes therefore only for the follower of Saiva tantra who succeeds to surpass even the consciousness of absolute creation. This supreme state is Anuttara or Parama Siva. Now, still within the tantric schools that are based upon the ninty-two Saivagamas, there is a discrimination and they could be considered also as successive steps in realization of the unique aim, that is the final emancipation. The standpoint expounded above, i.e. the three main groups of agamas and their corresponding tantras articulate mutually, was made on the metatheoretical level, as a consequence of analysing their conception upon freedom. In reality no serious Vaisnava will ever accept that a Sakta follower has a higher mystical aim or goal than himself, and the Sakti's devotee will consider Siva a passive and secondary element in cosmoge- ' nesis. Therefore, the Saiva tantra has developed its own way towards self-reali-

-9zation which includes and synthesizes theoretic elements and techniques from other systems. All these "heterogeneous" elements are gathered under a unitary vision, so that they appear as a coherent technique in vaiva tantra. The turee metaphisical levels of understanding the reality practiced in saiva tantra, i.e. dualistic, dualistic-cum-monistic and monistic, must be traversed by the follower one by one. Thus the tantrika will assume a changeable conception on the reality, consonant with the stage of his evolution. At the beginning of his initiation, the disciple recognises the fundamental duality on which the multiplicity is based; afterwards he becomes aware of unity-in-multiplicity and, on the summit of his self-realisation, he regards the whole as primordial unity and identity. It seems that absolutization of each of these stages to the detriment of the others was one of the reasons that led to later diversification of Saivism (K.C.Pandey Bhaskari III, Introduction, p.6). The dualistic, dualistic-cum-monistic and monistic sets of ' resSaivagamas are expressed according to the three different names of Siva, pectively Siva, Rudra and Bhairava. They are considered to have emanated from diverse mouths of the five-faced (pancavaktra) Siva, which symbolize actualization of his powers: creation, maintenance, destruction, obscuration (nirodha) and grace (anugraha). As early as the Taittiriya Aranyaka asserts, these functions are the result of exerting the five powers which are imagined as the Supreme Siva's faces or mouths, viz. Isa, Tatpurusa, Sadyojata, Vama and Aghora. The dualistic Saivagamas are said to have (powers) enumerated above, i.e. Isa, Tatpurusa and Sadyojata, the dualisticcum-monistic from Vama and Aghora and monism from the union of Siva and Sakti. Nevertheless, the symbolism of Lord Siva's five faces is by far much more Com- . come from the first three mouths

- 10 plex. Sayana for instance, in his interpretation at the Taittiriya Aranyaka connects them with a spiritual space dominated by the five Mantras: Sadyojatam, vamadevaya, Aghorebhyah, Tatpurusaya and Isanah, while Abhinavagupta in the Malinivijayavarttikam (KSTS, n.31; 375 seq. and 383 seq.) presents the successive apparition of the Saivagamas and the philosophical 777 branches by a kind of factorial calculation. He obtains diads, triads, tetrads and a supreme pentad ITSVA by circular permutations of the five powers in mutual combinations. The first group of the Saivagamas is called dualistic because it deals with such aspects of reality that presuppose diversity, namely, action (kriya), knowledge (jnana) and will (iccha). Another is called dualistic-cum-monistic because it is concerned with the self (cit) and self-awareness (ananda) as essentially identical but logically and formally different. The third is called monistic because it presents a spiritual level which is beyond the reach of will, knowledge and action, where logical and formal diversities disappear, where the what-is-real shines in itself, by itself and to itself. Now, speaking about tantric "philosophy" of Saivism, it is to be understood as shorthand for a "psycho-experimental-speculation" which envisages the practical aspect, the sadhana-part of the path to final selfrealization. It is important for our discussion to outline the specificity of Saiva tantra among the tantric constellation and especially vis-a-vis Saktism. The fundamental presupposition of Saivism is that siva phenoal menises the whole universe. It means the degradation of primordial uncreated equilibrium by Sakti's creative energies. The Saivite tantrika's effort aims

- 11 at traversing the phenomenal existence in reverse order for the sake of regaining a stable and pure condition. We may call it "reintegration" in the case of monism, where the individual selves appear as the results of creative involution due to Sakti. My formulation could sound a bit paradoxically, but it denominates very accurately the process of creation as it is conceived by Saivites. The ideal status does not mean to exist as a product of creation, but the withdrawal into what is uncreated. Therefore, the process of universal formation represents an involution in comparison with the primordial state which is something like a lost paradise that the tantrika is striving to regain. This is to be realized on two gradual levels: a) the homologation of the individual self with the whole phenomenal universe; b) the identity between the devotee and the absolute Siva. ' 1 The first purpose is carried out through the projective techniques that constitute the main method in the Saiva tantra. These projections of outside universe into the tantrika's body have multifarious proceedings that must correspond both to the follower's mystic target and to his native abilities. The generic name for these techniques is the inner sacrifice and they are performed mentally by the master who touches with his fingers different parts of disciple's body on which he projects the letters of the alphabet, various worlds etc. In his turn, the disciple must facilitate the introjection of the outside universe into his body by repeating on his owm, the same projections. He will make this process easier by using a mystical diagram of his own body which is called a mandala, various finger-poses, i.e. mudras, and especially magic incantations known as mantras. These projections must not be understood grosso modo like

- 12 pouring the outside universe into the tantrika's body. The tantric methods actualize these potentialities making the disciple self-conscious that he is identical with the whole cosmos. Thus, the practitioner will thoroughly regenerate as a consequence of this inner sacrifice; this is something like a new birth whereat the auept reaches a new level of knowledge and, for the Saiva thought, the knowledge characterizes the real existential states of a being. Therefore, the Saivite tantric path is a gnosis, and freedom is obtained as a result of acquiring mystical knowledge. The "re-birth" on a new level of knowledge is made possible through the purification of component elements of one's body, i.e. principles, powers, phonemes etc. Consequently, whenever I speak about projections, it must be understood implicitly the purificatory purpose of those techniques also. This purification envisages certainly a spiritual point of view and it aims to endow the adept with a mystic body. The second stride in Saiva tantra is the external sacrifice through which the adept is tantamount to Siva. During the inner sacrifice the whole universe is "incapsulated" consciously into the practitioner's body, while the external sacrifice is the supreme offering to the Lord, that is the offering of one's own body enriched with the whole existent. The identification with Siva is made by virtue of the principle: "to whom one sacrifices, there he does merge". Therefore, sacrificing the whole universe to the supreme Lord, one will surpass all the existential stages, entering the uncreated state which is mythologically represented as siva's imperturbable asceticism. " Now, concerning the difference between Sakta and Saiva tantra, one could answer in the same manner as the Hatna-Trya answered to the Saktyadvayavauin. The latter asserts that Sakti alone is the cause of the world ' ' and that Siva is an unnecessary assumption. The Ratna-Traya justifies the

13 admission of Si Siva such, it can have on the basis that Sakti is an attribute (dharma) and as no existence without a substratum (dharmin) (Rajatarangini, 103); Sakti is said to be related to Siva as the rays are to the sun (Rajatarangini, 68), that is non-different from Siva (svasaktyananyabhutaya, Rajatarangini, 42), but a manifestation of him. In the Tattva Prakasika it is asserted that the transcendental Siva is "cidghana" (Tattva-prakashika, 2); in this context the analogy conveys the idea that, just as power effects its purpose by means of a body, so the Lord acts by means of powers which are, in the last analysis, mere instruments in his hands. This is reflected on the sauhana plane of Saiva tantra by the whole ritualism whose main target is the non-manifested Siva, who may be reached only by experiencing and surpassing his bipolar aspect, as power and possessor OI power. in my For this reason I have especially used the word "power" for Sakti, even though it seems like a deliberate depersonalisation, but opinion the translation will better help our purpose which is to point out Siva's pre-eminence in all the Saivite tantric sadhanas, and also, it corresponds to the spirit of Saivite teaching. On the other hand, I am fully aware that any attempt to depersonalise a certain entity, runs counter to ' the general manner in which any tantrika - irrespective of his affiliation to one or another tantric school all the tantric practitioners will think of the whole world as peopled by gods, goudesses and spiritual entities. understands the reality. That is because Here, a methodological problem arises. in dealing with Saiva tantra in an exegetical work like this, three levels of exposition must be demarcated. Firstly, the language-object which is the tantric exposition of different sadhanas as we usually find them in the available texts; secondly,

- 14 the theoretical plane which is also included in the classic texts providing theoretical support for tantric behaviour; and thirdly, a plane that belongs to the metatheory, i.e. an exegetical and analytic position making up the framework of the whole thesis. This last level, on which any scientific work must be placed, constitutes an elaborated point of view as a result of modern methods investigating the topic. It can be stated that the diversification or tantras appears actually clearer and clearer with each new theoretical plane added, because on the basic level, i.e. that of sadhanas, we can find out a ratner common pattern. Thus, between the Buddhist vajrayana and Saivite tantric sadhanas there are incomparably more similarities than between the two philosophies. It has led some scholars to the supposition that tantra (and yoga) as soteriological techniques were already developed before the Aryan epoch of Indian culture. Having entered into a strife with the Vedic standpoint, tantra was banished from the "orthodox" territory, to where similar techniques were found (cinacara etc.). Like Saivism, the tantric tradition coexisted in the popular milieus a long time after the establishment of Brahmanic hegemony. Gradually, Brahmanism was much influenced by both Saiva religion and soteriological procedures, i.e. yoga and tantra. In his commentary on the Vedanta Sutra, Srikantha tries to create a bridge between Veda and Saivagamas, as both equally authoritative, but also he outlines the great differences involuntarily%; the Vedas address themselves to the three higher castes only, while the Saivagamas are for all, irrespective of caste. Recognition of the universal brotherhood of mankind and refutation of caste-barriers, is the distinctive mark of Saivism and tantra. Therefore, tantra came to

15 an understanding with Buddhism (as a reaction to the official religion) and from it received an ideological background (as yoga received it from sankhya). Further more, the sadhanas were taken over by Hinduism during its struggle against Buddhism. As often happens in the history of culture, a conflict brings about an exchange of cultural features between opponents. Thus, Saiva tantra seems a reunification of Saivism as filtered in a long speculative tradition of metaphysics and the tantric method, i.e. an attempt to cast the inherited techniques into a new philosophical and rational armour. The manner in which Saiva tantra appears to us is more sophisticated then the Sakta branch. This is because a long series of pandits successively edified a theoretical apparatus around it, hardly accessible to the wide public, while the Saktism was preserved mainly by a folk tradition. It explains why today the "practitioners" of Saiva tantra are less in number than the Sakta followers and also justifies the tantric division into periods. By the tenth century the whole classic bulk of 1 Saiva tantric literature was thoroughly completed, while the "golden age" 1- = of sakta scriptures was the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. This made even very serious historians of Indian Philosophy, like Heinrich Zimmer, ascribe the whole tantric movement to the Sakta branch of the later centuries (H.Zimmer The Philosophies of India, Meridian G 6, New York, 1958, the last chapter, on tantra). What is beyond any doubt is that during the last centuries tantra has changed much of its content. And these aspects appear mainly within Sakta schools which extrapolate the power of action, hence the

- 16 Foundations of Tibetan condition of being-in-world. Perhaps it is the pre-eminence of worldly powers in the Sakta techniques that made Lama Govinda Anagarika affirm that Hindu tantra aims only at propitiation (Lama A. Govinda Mysticism, London, 1959). Certainly, he is not right in expounding such a general assumption without discriminating between variegated tantric tendencies which have evolved in India. I believe that Saiva iva tantra points to the highest level of transcendency and freedom. Such a state may be reached the Saivite tantric sciptures teach - only by uprooting oneself from the world of powers and gaining the uncreated condition. Now, what is the aim of Sakta tantra? Firstly the practitioner must immerge into powers, becoming one with Sakti and lastly, he receives pacification in union with Siva who embodies passivity. But this level corresponds in the Saiva outlook to the thirty-fifth and thirty-sixth principles, ananda and cit. The only difference is that the Saivite aims even beyond these two stages, viz. to reach an attara, the absolute level, where there is no power at all. The absolutisation of power in Saktism causes undue emphasis on action with all its consequences. At the same time, spreading the tantric knowledge in the folk milieu it has started bearing a more and more pragmatical character turning to some practices that have nothing to do with liberation. If it is true that tantra was destined to this kali-yuga which has been the worst epoch so far, it is also true that the late fusion of tantra with some practices pertaining to witchcraft and black magic made this yuga seem gloomier than it would have looked without it. ' No doubt, the Saiva va tantra revealed in the classic works is not a lesson of moral for our times and certain erotical proceedings

17 could arouse disgust in even the most depraved persons among us. Sexual intercourse that has to be practiced most successfully with your own daughter, mother, etc., is a teaching that does not make room for what mankind has concluded about normal human behaviour. There are enough evidence that Abhinavagupta kept such relationships with his sister after she had become a young widow. However, the old "knowers" argued that the sensuality implied usually by the sexual act can be easier removed in this manner, giving way to pure gnosis and mystic ecstasy, and nenceforth, to freedom. But which kind of soteriological goal is achieved through necrophiliac practices with the cody of a dead woman for instance, which is said to be revitalized due to the practitioner's semen? Human sperm is believed to be the only thing as energetical and powerful as blood. The first is assimilated to male consciousness in its waking state and the latter to the female state of mind which is characterized according to the tantric view by subconscious activity. Life means especially waking state, while death is like sleep, an immersion into one's own subconscious. Therefore, when a young and beautiful woman dies, the tantrika will take (sometimes buy) and keep the corpse for several days, at times warming it with hot bricks. Periorming sexual intercourse with the dead body, he restores life to the woman through his semen and incantations (i.e. he confers the waking state upon the corpse,, using her for necromantic purposes. Before destroying the corpse, ne will cut off its need and mount it 32 apat raved with magical symbols which is permanently retained by the necromancer, who, from time to time, would pronounce a conjuration and force it to answer some questions. A somewhat similar technique may be performed on any corpse drawing a magic circle around it and placing on its right side a vessel containing the five makaras (N.E. mudra is represented here through a coin) which are offered to the body's spirit. The chief practitioner touches the corpse some times with a wand made from the thighbone of a dead man, or with his sacrificial life and commanus it: "In the name of Kalika

- 18 (i.e. goddess Durga) I commend you to rise and answer!". There are people who swear that the corpse rises to its feet and in a hallow voice replies to the questions asked. In my opinion, all these necromantic practices - and many others that I am not going to list here prove a basic powerlessness and instead of leading to freedom, they bind more and more the practitioner. What is the reason to appeal to bound spirits for finding out the future, unless one is incapable of mastering events, or his lack of knowledge? One of Saiva tantra's main goals is to achieve non-discursive and intuitive knovledge which means gnosis. Such an achievement frees of any enslavement in one way or another to external entities; Saivite gnosis means inwardness of the whole existent, because the practitioner is omniscient Siva himself. This is to say nothing about other terrific practices like sacrificing young girls and drinking their blood, murder by remote control (muth) etc., which have brought a bad reputation to tantra. Destructive devices are presented at length in the Kaulavalinirnaya of Jnanananda Paramahamsa (Tantric Texts, vol. XIV, Calcutta, 1928), which gives full instructions on such meditations, mantras and yantras. These manoeuvres created a situation whereby nowadays a tantrika is understood in common parlance as a person who is much better to be avoided if somebody is not fond of troubles. The purpose of this work is not to present anomalies, against which even the classic Saiva tantra warned. We regard here Saiva tantra as a way of redemption and freedom, trying to restore its whole soteriological value and meaning as it comes out from the old teaching. It has been pointed sadhanas out that Saivite have much in common with a good deal of Sakta,

19 Buddhist etc. tantric procedures. Thus, some scholars had difficulty trying to make a sharp classification of certain systems as belonging to one or another tendency. For instance, the similarity between a large amount of saahanas used in Krama tantra with those employed in Sakta, has led to the conclusion that Krama is more like a Sakta branch. a What is characteristic for Saiva tantra is that the practitioner identifies himself with Siva lastly, despite the fact that he could worsnip now and then other gods who are actually imagineu as intermediate steps. Thus, on the Saivite path it is quite clear why Sakti is worthy of great devotion since she personifies Siva's manifest power. But for the Saivite Sakti is an emanation and an instrument, not a goal in herself. Therefore, in Saiva tantra the male principle is the foremost element, fully active. The Sakta iconological thesis establishes that "siva without Sakti is a corpse" (sivasaktivihinah savah). Buddnist vajrayana considers, on the contrary, that the male is the active actor while the female takes only a passive part. Saivite tantric outlook has a special position among cantras, upholding that both male and female principles are active, despite their opposition. In fact, a real opposition can not manifest if one of the components is passive%;B both Siva and Sakti oppose each other as two contrary but equal energies, creating only in this way universal equilibrium. This activism of the two highest principles results from the Saivite theory of interaction and interdependence between subject and object. ' Now, although we find some essays on the theoretical aspect of Saivism, little has been done on Saiva tantra so far, on the exegetical ground. Thereby the great difficulty that I have to overcome was to

- 20 systematize a very large amount of material on the topic, for the first time. It gave me the possibility to reach some new points of view and consequently, I have suggested a thoroughly different interpretation on a good deal of items considered "standardised" and generalized solutions. I tried my best to make the problems clear and to point out all the particular features of . Saiva tantra vis-a-vis the other tantras. Inasmuch as the present work is an analysis destined to a circle of scholars, I have not detailed the elements of Saiva philosophy, thinking that they are already known. I would have been able to add three more chapters concerning the sadhanas performed on the first three levels of initiation, but it would have made the work look like a tantric textbook which was not my intention. Consequently, I prefered to maintain throughout the thesis rather a metatheoretical approach to the matter.