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Nirrti occurs twenty six times in the Rgveda. According to Sayana Nirrti has many connotations, for example, Papadevata (8 times) (1.24.9, VI.74.2, VII.104.9, X.59.1, 76.4, 161.2, 164.1. 165.1), Prthivi 'earth' (5 times) (I.117.5, VII.37.7, 59.1, X.95.14, 114.2); goddess of death, three times (X.18.10; 36.2,4), duhkha 'unhappiness' three times and hurt, injury twice (1.38.6 & VIII 24.24, 7.1 raksah) 66 According to Henry (La magie dans l'Inde antique), Nirgti is the goddess of earth. Singh says i * Nirriti is frthivi and a mobile state of Vak or sakti. Nirrti as earth is connected with Nerthus, the ancient Teutonic deity of earth and fertility (Mythological Dictionary, p. 115). In Rgveda she is not the earth-goddess. According to Sayana, she is the raksa jatidevata (Comm on Rigveda VI.38.6). Nirrti originally meant the territory of the Raksasas. According to Dumezil (Deesses latines et mythes Vediques), Nirrti may be compared to the Roman goddess Lua Mater. In the Nirukta Nirrti is misery i.e, nist/r 'to go' (absence of progress or prosperity). According to Walde and Pokorny she means decay or is related directly to death. According to Keith, Nirrti is (the deity over death). According to Zimmer, Nirrti is the goddess of death or destruction ("Attindisches Leben",pp. 89, 92). Nirrti is the female equal of Yama (cf. Dr. Sukumari Bhattacharji, The Indian Theogony, p. 82). She is the goddess of destruction (cf. Shende N.J..Religion and Philosophy of Atharvaveda, p. 19). She is an evil spirit (Parabi, The Miraculous and Mysterious in Vedic Literature, pp. 75-76) 772 of Sayana's view. D.V. Chauhan, "Nirrti in the Rgveda," Visveshvaranand Indological Journal, Vol. 19, 1981, p. 4. 2 J.R. Joshi, op. cit., p. 150.

** In connection with the observation that Nirrti originally meant the territory of the Raksases, one remembers the Raksases, one remembers the later cognate nairrta which means a monster, raksasa. 256 Nirrti fills the mind of the people with fear by her iron cord. She is beseeched to unfasten the bond-fetters of iron? She has fastened the binding noose on the neck of the worshipper. She is prayed to loosen and detach the iron band that binds the worshipper; being unanimous with Yama and Yami she is invoked to uplift him to the sublimest vault of heaven. aven . Oblations are offered into her mouth for unloosening her strong fetters. Her presence 6 at a sacrifice is always feared. Taittiriya-samhita 2.2.65 enjoins that after returning home from a business trip (according to Keith) or a begging expedition (according to Sayana), a person throws the rope, with which he drives the last of his cows against his enemies, that is, by the act, he indeed casts misfortune, that is, Nirrti upon them. Not only does she bind others of her own accord, she even binds the enemies of any person who asks for her help. In Atharva-veda III.6.5, the performer prays to her "May Nirrti bind with unbreakable fetters of death my enemies (of two kinds) whom I hate and who hate me. 3 Atharva-veda VI.63.2. 4 Vajasaney-samhita XII : 65. S Vajasaney-samhita XII : 63. 6 Vajasaney-samhita XII : 64, Atharva-veda VI.84.1.

257 A family where there is continuous quarrel is supposed to be under the influence of Nirriti. Kausika 97.1-7 prescribes a rite to drive her out of the house and restore harmony in the family. Two oblations should be made into the fire while Atharva-veda VIII.2.12 is recited. After the marriage ceremony, when the newly wedded wife steps into her husband's house, she sprinkles 7 the house with water with the verse Atharva-veda 14.2.19 "stand up from here : With what intention have you come here ? Get out of my house, o Nirrti : I can overcome you, O Ida ! etc. Atharva-veda 8.1 & 2 are employed by Kausika 55.16-17 in the sacred-thread ceremony, and Nirrti is propitiated to keep herself away from the newly initiated boy. Nirrti's anger causes various diseases. It is supposed an 8 that if a person is suffering from the ksetriya disease, it is the result of the nager of Nirrti. Kausika 26.41; 27.4-8 employ Atharva-veda 2.8, 2.10 and 3.7 for the cure of such a disease. In Atharva-veda II.10.1, Nirrti is prayed to cure the disease. It may incidentally be pointed out that though she is the cause of disease and death, she is also approached for their cure as well as for long life. In Rigveda V.41.17, the poet prays to her to destroy the sufferings of old age. + A bad dream is regarded as Nirrti's son. A person who has seen a bad dream should rub his face with his hands and utter Atharva-veda 16.5. In Rigveda 10.164.1 = Atharva-veda 20.96.24, the dream is asked to go far away to another land and tell Nirrti not to bind men. 7 Kausika 77.16. 8 Atharva-veda II.10.1. 9 Atharva-veda 16.5.4.

258 If a drop of water has fallen from a cloudless sky or if a fruit from a tree falls on the body of a person, it bodes misfortune. Kausima 46.41-42 prescribes that in. such cases Atharva-veda 6.124 (where Mirrti occurs) should be uttered and the body should be washed with pure water because such a drop of water has been caused to fall by the ominous Nirrti. In Rigveda VII.58.1, the Maruts are said to have risen from the beamless world of Nirrti and to have spread all over the sky. The world of Nirrti is underneath the earth full of sin. When there is heavy downpour, Maruta are prayed not to let Nirrti bind men, and to see that she 10 maybbe destroyed. Puruavas says that he would sleep in the lap of Nirrti if Urvaci spurns his love. By this phrase he means death. Maitrayani-samhita III.6.3 associates Nirrti with dice, women and dreams. If a brahmacari during the period of his student's career, approaches a woman for sexual enjoyment, it is assumed that he broke his vow of celibacy under the evil influence of Nirrti. Therefore she should be appeased. : When asked to, Nirrti may also help those who want to destroy hostile persons. Being of one mind with Mrtyu, she has been implored to kill the enemy. Kausika 48.3-6 gives a rite to kill an enemy and employ Atharva-veda 3.6 in this rite. Atharva-veda VII.7.3 together with Atharva-veda VI.5.4 has been employed by Kausika 48.27 to spoil the sacrifice of an enemy. Nirrti has been prayed to render ineffective any kind of sacrifice that the enemy might be contemplating to perform or actually performing (of. also Taittiriya-brahmana 2.42.2). 10 Rigveda X.95.14. 11 Atharva-veda 7.73.1.

259 Nirrti occurs in three suktas Atharva-veda 2.25, 4.36 and 8.4. In Sava sacrifice named pancaudana, a goat which is slaughtered, cooked and offered with fine rice dishes, and thus considered to have gone to heaven to pave the way for the sacrificer to follow, 12is supposed to have driven Nirriti off. Among the gods who have been invoked to appease or drive Nirrti away are Agni, Varuna, the Maruts, Mrtyu, the Adityas, Dhatr, the gods of the regions, Soma and Rudra and the pressing- -stone. In Atharva-veda VII.55.3, Agni has been prayed to to bring the pranas of the newly initiated boy back from the lap of Nirrti. This hymn (Atharva-veda VII.55) is further recited by the acarya, while touching the 13 navel of the boy, in the upanayana ceremony. Dhatr, the all- -creator has been beseeched in Atharva-veda 18.32.6 (which is a funeral hymn) to give protection from the southern direction presided by Nirriti. In Atharva-veda VII : 43:1, Soman and Rudra together have been solicited to drive Mirrti far away. Taittiriya-brahmana 11.8.2.2 prays to the Adityas to deprive Nirrti of her strength in binding others. The presiding divinities of the quarters have been entreated to release the sacrificer from the fetters of Nirrti. In Rigveda X.36.4, the pressing-stone has been prayed to keep Nirriti away so that there may not be any obstacle in the sacrifice. Varuna, the guardian of Rta has been prayed to to keep Nirrti away from the sacrifice. Taittiriya-samhita 1.4.45.1 employs this re in the avabhrtha (purificatory bath) when the sacrificer approaches the 14 12 Atharva-veda IX.5.18 and Kausika 64.6.28. 13 Kausika 55.17. 14 Rigveda X.36.4, 74.4. 15 15 Rigveda I.24.9.

260 water. Scholars are not unanimous in interpreting her relation with Indra. In Rigveda VII.37.7, it is said that she has power all around. Indra. " Velankar, following Sayana, explains this ro as : The triply related Indra, resorting to whom even the goddess Nirriti governs (the mortals) 19 Reading In Rigveda VIII.24.24 (>> Atharva-veda 20.66.3), it is said that the thunder- -armed Indra knows Nirgtis (plural) to destroy them. both the res together, it appears that Indra does not have the capacity to overpower Nirrti. He simply knows as to how to avoid her destructive forces. It is also significant that now here le Mirrti. Indra is prayed to drive away Nirres. That Indra is not a sub- -16 jugator of Nirges is further corroborated by Kathaka Samhita, Indra was once enamoured of a danavi called vilistenga. The demon lived among the esuras assuming the guise of a male among the males and that of a female among the females. Indra thought himself to have been seized by her. No other gods have been shown to be under the baneful influence of Nirrti. regarded as her subduers. They are If she is disNirrti is the goddess of disorderliness. pleased then instand doom follows, but otherwise it is smooth going. It It is feared that without her favourable disposition, no sacrifice can be carried on without hindrance. In the Rajasuya sacrifice, on the 11th day of the bright half of the month Phalguns 16 13.5.

261 that is, on the second day after the pavitra (intreductory) rite, five offerings are made to Anumati, Nirrti and others. The offering is made first to Nirrti to avoid any trouble or impediment. men*. because The done and the owl are birds of 111 omen *? they are considered to be the messengers of Nirrti. Nirrti's 18 mouth is equated with a crow, and therefore any part of the body touched or injured by a crow portends bad luck. She is the presiding deity over the Mila constellation. A child born in the Mila constellation is ominous to its parents. In Vedic literature, she is not an ugly demoness, but a 19 charming and luminous divinity with a winsome visage. She is 20 possessed of golden hair, golden complexion, and has a golden 21 crown, and she rests on a golden couch All these give an aura 22 of sharp-edged brilliance to her elegant looks. In the Satapatha-brahmana, Nirrti is equated with the earth. The worshippers hail her as earth with their glad voices and she is 23 A reference may be noted in this known as Nirrti everywhere. connection : " 17 Rigveda X.165.1-4. 18 Atharva-veda VI.29.2. 19 Atharva-veda V.7.10. 20 Atharva-veda V.7.9. 21 Atharva-veda V.7.10. 22 Vajasaney-samhita XII.63. 23 Vajasaney-samhita XII.64, Satapatha-brahmana III.5.2.3.

se 262 In the Satapatha-brahmana VII.21.11 in the context of Nirrti's altar, it is said : i Nirrti is this earth, and this earth makes him decay who becomes corrupted. A reference may also be made to the following passage in connection with the Rajasuya from the same Brahmana : ecra The For Nirriti is this (earth) whomsoever she seizes upon with evil, him she seizes upon with destruction. refore whatever part of this earth is of Nigrti-nature, that he propitiates and thus Nirrti does not seize upon him, while being constructed. And the reason why he t offers in a self-produced hollow or cleft, is that much of this earth is possessed with Nirrti. The self-produced hollow symbolises disorder. Therefore the Brahmana may not be said to equate Mirrti with the earth directly? that 24 Nirrti is often considered to be the reverse of Rta or Rti (or order) i.e, Mirrti or disorder. A few references may be noted in this context # order. 66 Dandekar equates Nirriti with the absence of rta or cosmic Varuna is the administrator of the cosmic law or rta. Nirrti presides over disorder, for example, death, poverty, etc. She is the negative female counterpart of Rta - (1) The fact that Nirgti is not celebrated in any entire hymn may be suggestive of the concept 24 J.R. Joshi, op. cit., p. 153.

263 having originated comparatively late -- all this is confirmed by Vedic Mythology and ritual connected 925 with Nirrti. 6 It is important to note that Nirrti has no 0: 路 connection with Rta, not even negatively or as its opposite element, which shows her paltry relation with Varuna with whom she has been mentioned only once. It appears that the concept of Rea and Nirrti developed independently. This further shows that Nirrti does not belong to the non-Aryan cult. In Vajasaney-samhita 12.62, the poet directs her to seek him who does not offer oblation i.e, him who is outside the Aryan official religion 726 A reference may again be noted in connection with the conception of Nirrti as "an acute scarcity of water or waterlessness: EE Nirrti is the negation of rti which connotes 'snow, water'. Hence it would be 'waterlessness' Water is in fact the essence of all life cf. Rigveda VII.10.1. The initial notion of waterlessness in the compound Nirrti can be appreciated after looking carefully into the context of the texts. The local senses can be broadly put into two categories : (1) waterless situation and (11) absolute lack of rain in a place, land converting the place into a dreary, dreadful location. All life, men and animals are terrified at the very idea. Herce the term 'Nirrti' has become a matter of khyz 25 J.R. Joshi, op. cit., p. 152. 26 Lal, S.K., "Nirrti," Journal of the Oriental Institute, M.S. University of Baroda, Vol. 24 (3-4), 1975, p. 310.

264 abuse, condemnation, a thing associated with death. Out of the 23 occasions of use of Nirrti in 12 contexts, the notion of absence of water, some sort of liquid can reasonably be traced and visualised. In the rest 11 contexts the personified sense of death goddess or an object of condemnation is intended. Rigveda 10.10 - Yama-Yami dialogue, The 12 contexts are : (1) Rigveda 10.10 (2) stanza 32 of Rigveda I.164, (3) 1.119.7 of Rigveda, (4) Rigveda I.117.5, (5) 1.38.6, 1.38.6, (6) Rigveda 7.37.7 (7) 7.5.81, (8) 10.36.2, (9) 10.36.4, (10) 10.3165.1, (11)10.114.2 - all in Rgveda I.190.1 - 7.36.110.114.1.66. Dandekar has called Nirrti a minor deity, a devata. The real nature of Nirrti, water scarcity, intense or mild, is destruction of all life on earth and div 127 Nirrti is only intense water-scarcity. 28 She is incomparable, and is possessed of ever-increasing strength and high spirit She knows all that is born, and she 29 30 31 discerns every form with attention. She is paid homage to 32 She is the abode of, and also the collector of riches She is fierce 34 35 36 and is possessed of a malicious and devious mind. and terrible, and is possessed of a wicked soul. She is cruel, .38. ³ 37 27 D.V. Chauhan, op. cit., pp. 6-10. 28 Rigveda VI.84.3. 29 Rigveda 1.88.6. 30 Atharva-veda 5.7.9. 31 Atharva-veda VI : 63:2, Taittiriya-samhita IV: 2:5. 32 Vajasaney-samhita XII : 62, 63 & 65, 35 36 Taittiriya-samhita IV : 2.5. www Vajasaney-samhita 12.64. Satapatha-brahmana 7.2.13. 33 Maitrayani-samhita III : 214. 37 34 Taittiriya-samhita IV : 2 1 5. 37 Taittiriya-brahmana I.2.4.2.. 38 Rigveda 10.63.2.

In Greek mythology, Ker is the goddess of death and is 265 thus an analogue of the Indian Nirriti. So also is Moros (the masculine of Moira, the fate-aspect of Nirrti). These determined and controlled human destiny, and were consequently regarded with fear and awe. The Greek earth-goddess Demeter, the mother of Persephone (the wife of Pluto) is another manifestation. The dark and sinister traits of Nirrti are confirmed in her Greek parallel Persephone; for her 'sacrifices consisted of black sheep and the person offering it had to turn away his face One is immediately aware of the similarity with the Indian ritual to the ancestors where, too, the sacrificer is bidden to turn away his face and sometimes to avoid direct contact by touch'. In Greek mythology we meet the Katachthoni Theoi --- the subterranean deities called the Erinyes connected with the tomb. As such they represent the earth-Nirriti in so far as she symbolises the burial ground, where death is followed by decay. The Erinyes are guardians of the tomb. In one of her dreaded aspects Demeter, the mother-goddess of the Minoans was called Demeter Erinyes. The dreaded Cybele, imported into Rome from Anatolia had similar gruesome details connected with her and as an earth-goddess is allied to Nirrti. 39 Georges Dumezil³ writes of the Roman goddess Lua Mater associated with Saturness (who would be a parallel to Sani and Kala) 39 in his review of Deesses latines et mythes Vediques in Journal of the American Oriental society, 80, No. 1, Jan. March 1960.

266 as she is described in Livy VIII.1.6 as the goddess of destruction. Consul Plautius gave the enemies' arms to her after the victory of Amelius Paulus over Ferseus. These arms vere burned after prayer to Mars, Minerva and Lua Mater. Lua Mater is a parallel of Nirrti. 0 The great image of Isis when she speaks to the transformed ass in Apulieus says, 'I am Nature, the universal mother,' and 'the queen of the dead'; in both traits she resembles Nirkti. Thus she still remains the mother-goddess who is associated with the dead. In Celtic mythology, we have Morrigan 'the Danaan goddess of death and destruction 40 As Nirrti definitely belongs to the lunar group of gods, she bears resemblance to Hekate, the goddess of the moon as well as of witchcraft 鈥� tt At the end of the month when there was no moon in the sky, the Greek housewife used to sweep her floors and take the rubbish to a crossroads, where she threw it down with averted eyes and returned without looking back. Such deposite ware known as 'Hekate's suppers' on the sixteenth of the month, when the moon had just passed the full, the women used to go to the crossroad and offer Hekate round cakes stuck with candles which they called 'shiners' (amphistones) +1 40 41 T.W. Rolleston, "Myths and legends of the Celtic race, George Thomson, Studies in ancient Greek society, p. 229. P. 172.

! 267 In ancient Roman religion, we have a parallel of this custom, GE Compitum or crossroads. Here it was customary to set up a little chapel of the Lares of the crossroads, Lares Compitales, open in all four directions so that the Lar of each farm might have free egress to 742 the common shrine. : One notices the stress on the crossroads, perhaps symbolising the meeting point of life and death. In the nature of the offerings to Hekate, viz. the sweepings, one notices the similarity with those offered to Nirrti, the scum, the ill-omented, the refuse --- these are her portion. In the ritual to Hekate, as in that to the Lares and Nirrti and also to the fathers, the sacrificer comes away without looking back a sign of fear and foreboding of evil. 42 16 Nirrti of the Rgveda is identified with Nerthus of North Germany and Scandinavia. Nirrti appears in the Reveda as a goddess of the dawn and dancing and Unadivrtti explains the term as Mother Earth. The evidence of Tacitus also goes to prove that Nerthus, to whom cows were sacred and in whose honour melee was held yearly, was identical with the Mother Earth. The sacred dance is a familiar phenomenon in connection with the cult, and as Dr. Sten Konow points out, Narthus is probably to be derived from the root nrt, 'to dance', so is probably Nritu or Nriti Konow also shows (Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, XXI, No. 7) many features that are common to Durga-puja and the worship of Nerthus (also known as Herthe or Hertha). 43 H.J. Rose, Ancient Roman religion, p. 38. 43 S.K. Diksit, op. cit., p. 54. :

nana Nirrti's parallels are found all over the world. 'At the Hagia Triada ... the emblems suggest the cult 268 of the goddess in a funerary settling with her priestesses the officiants in a sacrificial oblation on behalf of the deceased ... perhaps with the blood flowing down to the an, earth through bottomless vessels as an offering to Mother Earth as the ultimate source of rebirth.*: But : This ritual is very much like the Roman Taurobolos instituted in honour of the imported West Asian Cybele. In many countries where the indigenous cults and rites had been pushed underground by the religion and ritual of the invading Aryans these ancient gods and goddesses took their full revenge at a later period. The Indo-European religion was essentially a religion, of 'gods' 'gods' (as opposed to goddesses) as their society too was patriarchal. in a period even later than the amalgamation of Indo-European and non-Indo-European religions, can the mystery cults, when the older cultic practices with the millennium-old chthonic and mother- -goddess emphasis reemerged and swept over the country. This happened in a very marked degree in Rome and in India. occult rituals of Mithraism, Orphism, Dionysiac and Eleusinian mysteries together with other minor cults of similar order swept Rome, where as Tantrism and veneration of the mother-goddess in many forms swept India and left an indelible mark on her religion for centuries to come. Gilbert Slater in his book, The Dravidian element in Indian culture, says of the south Indian Magna Mater The 44 E.O. James, Prehistoric religion, Thames, 1957, pp. 164-165.

269 Gangamma or Mariamman or Mariyatta (who bears some resemblance to north Indian Durga or Candi and also to the old earth-mother- -goddess Nirrti) that she rejoices in blood and demands wholesale sacrifice of male animals ... but most of all in male buffalo' (p. 92). This is a faint echo of Tauroboles, only the buffalo is substituted for the ox. The Black Demeter of Phigalia and the Demeter Erinyes of Thelpusa had similar dark associations, for Dameter had very strong connections with the dead. 145 The Vedic Aryans regarded Nirgti as a goddess who signified evil in every form on the hand. On the other hand they also considered her as capable of redressing those evils. She was supposed to bind the people with her strong fetters, and was also approached to release them from those. She brought disease and death to the people, but was also invoked to cure their disease, and grant long life to them. It is, therefore, noticeable that she embodied quite a few paradoxical features. She was generally looked upon as a minor deity of the Vedic Pantheon. Nirrti is supposed to be the deity of destruction, decay, 45 disorder and misfortune. It is said i that Nirriti takes the sacrifice of one whose oblation gets decayed or burnt this indicates her chaotic and destructive quality. 45 Dr. Sukumari Bhattacharji, The Indian Theogony Cambridge University Press, 1970, p. 92. 46 Satyashadha-srauta-sutra III : 15:4:26.

Like the 'burning of oblation', the 'falling of embers' also ritualistically indicates disorder. In this connection wa have the following sutra (arautakosa I. Eng. sec. Econs, 1958, 1962). "If before prayaja offerings, embers fall out beyond the enclosing sticks, one should lift up the embers with 'I lift up the sacrifice from the lap of Mirrti and offer it to the gods'. 270 Evidently the sense of being in the lap of Nirgti signifies being earmarked for destruction. Thus Nirrti becomes a synonym of destruction. Similarly, just as the out-of-the-order oblation is offered to her, so also the animal offering which is unfit for sacrifice becomes sacred to her, for example, the sacrifice Pandakah, a word which literally means 'that which is ruined' In view of the purifying capacity of water in ritual, the secrificer is enjoined to touch water after the rites relating to Mirrti. This emphasizes the inauspicious associations of Hirrti. Normally a sacrifice is offered by the yajamana together with his wife. Naturally therefore the absence of either of the two constitutes a kind of abnormality. In connection with such a contin gency, the following instruction is found # vy If the sacrificer's wife has died, cooked rice should be offered to Nirgti. 47 AD ES XXIV 1

271 If the Sannayya vessel leaks, it is recited over with a formula related to Nirrti. The Grhyasutras confirm the character of Mirrti as set forth so far. Thus if an oblation is burnt and consequently destroyed, the performer is enjoined to recite over that oblation with "nirrtyai tva? and to draw out some of the embers towards the south of north with "You who are both this and that side go to the raksasas, and then, to offer three oblations of clarified butter" with "Agni punishes the raksasas." This occurs in the context of the naimittike prayascittas. As for the parsonification of Nirgti it may be pointed out that being the presiding divinity of "disorder" or "chaos" her nature is also conceived to be terrible, and her disfavour too is said to bring untoward incidents. The JOS 11.1 refers to her as the terrific (ugra) one. In the Vaikhanasa-grihya-sutra, She is mentioned as one among the varicus Rudyas. In connection of the worship of Virupeksa, who is unfavourable to sri and prosperity that god is said to be the son of Mirrti. In one text (AGS Parisista), Nirrti is said to be 'one of the guardians of the people', who presides over seasons. She is said to be a negative female counterpart of Varuna. disfavour brings unfortunate consequences. Her If the oblations for any god, are burnt, it would show that she has taken hold of that sacrifice. Therefore, the offering is suspended and another 49 oblation is prepared for the deity concerned. In case the AD 48 Ap as 9.15.6 - 9

272 sacrificial cake is partly burnt, the burnt portion should be given away to the sacrificer's enemies, apparently with a desire that she may seize the enemy, and draw her attention away from the sacrificer's rites. If a brahmacarin during the period of his studenthood approaches a woman for sexual enjoyment, it is assumed that he broke his vow under the ill influence of Nirrti. Therefore she should be appeased.PO S 3,12.8 enjoins that on a new-moon day, the student should sacrifice an ass at the crossroads to Nirrti and offer a mess of cooked rice to her. She is frequently related to the inauspicious. The Mula constellation which is very inauspicious seems to be connected with Nirkti. 66 an 49 In the SGS, Jyestha Alaksmi is referred to as a goddess who is variously described as Jyestha (elder), Kapilapatni (Kapila's wife), Kumbhi (pitcher), Jyaya (elder), Hastimukha (elephant faced), Vighnaparsada, and Nirrti. Now, the emphasis on being elder is significant. She is older than Lakami, an Aryan goddess of corn and prosperity. In the Lakami Puja, even in present-day Bengal, a rough ready image of Alaksmi is fashioned out of cow-dung or clay and is chased away by a small winnowing fan before the proper rites for Laksmi begin. Jyeatha is the southern counterpart of the northern Sitala (goddess of the smallpox). Syestha Alaksmi or Mirrti, is described by the manual of iconography Suprabhedagama as having a crow-ensign, seated on an ass, the wife of Kali and is to be two-armed, long- -nosed, with sagging lips, long and pendulous breasts and e Sankhayana-grihya-sutra 1.26.17.

273 belly and with a lotus in her hand. This description gives us back many of the old associations of Nirrti : the crow (as it is a symbol of dead ancestors in many parts of India still); the ass, which was already connected with Mirrti, her aged and decrepit appearance indicating that she symbolised decay. Her segging lips and generally withered looks also indicate decrepitude. She is called Jyestha or Jyaya (older or older) and these are relative terms: older than whom ? The obvious answer is older than the Aryan Laksmi who is beneficent and of a pleasing appearance. The non-Aryan, probably Dravidian, mother-goddess associated with death, burial and decomposition was generally pushed out of existence and after the racial and cultural amalgamation remained only as a spectre of fearful and obnoxious appearance, to be disposed of summarily before the more aesthetically satisfying worship of an Aryan 50 mother-goddess commences. It is thus clear that people regarded Mirrti as a deity representing destruction, disorder, decay, chaos and misfortune. They also thought her to be connected with the inauspicious too. She is held to be a minor goddess of the Vedic pantheon. : A question naturally arises why deify the inauspicious, the destructive and the negative 7 ne negative ? Possibly the realization of reverence. human helplessness in the face of the unforeseen and unforeseeable destructive forces in nature generated a sense of awe which led to People sought to appease and mollify this destructive power in nature; they did so primarily by deifying this power and secondarily by supplicating it. 50 Dr. Sukumari Bhattacharji, op. cit., pp. 89-90.

! 274 We notice the binary opposition in the concepts of rta and nirrti, she is the exact opposite of rta. But since rta is invisibly and irrevocably operative in the cosmos there was no need to appease it. The seers praised it in superlative terms and that was all that was deemed necessary regarding rta. But with Nirriti the picture was very different. She was seen as operative in nature relentlessly seeking to destroy what was good and auspicious, baffling human pursuits and endeavours so she needed to be placated and dissuaded from carrying on her dread acts. To do so they needed first to anthromorphize her, however, vaguely and abstractly yet sufficiently to render her convincing as a deity. Thus was she born as a goddess - a goddess whom the worshipper feared, whose actions they sought to contain, whose favours they solicited. In Nirrti we find the embryo of all the later gramadevatas of epidemics and pestilences who are deified with the express purpose of turning them from being inimical to the worshipper to becoming favourable and benign to them. Nirrti is thus a Vedic prototype of a host of such gods and goddesses.