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The institution of marriage is the next important factor of the social structure of the Hindus. The Dharmasutras, Smrtis and epics mention eight forms of marriage. There are three laws regulating marriage, viz. (1) endogamy, or marriage in one's own caste, (2) gotra-exogamy or marriage outside direct paternal line, and (3) sapinda-exogamy or marriage outside certain specified degrees of blood relations (sapindas)-paternal as well as maternal. Anuloma marriage or hypergamy, though not approved, was yet regarded as valid, and the issue born of such marriage was placed in an intermediate caste between that of its parents. There was no question of contravening the rules as to exogamy in the Anuloma marriage, as the other party was certainly beyond the prohibited relationship, being of a different caste altogether; but these marriages obviously broke the rule of endogamy. Pratiloma marriages have been strictly prohibited since ancient times and were looked down upon as invalid and illegal. The issues born of Pratiloma marriage were styled as Candalas or Nisadas and they were not included in the four castes. At the time of the Rgveda there do not appear to have been any rules prohibiting intermarriages. On the contrary, we come across many marriages of the Rsis with the Ksatriyas and vice versa. The only restriction seems to have been against marriages with the Anaryas, Dasas or Dasyus. There was no religious obligation that every girl must be married; allusions are to be met with in the Rgveda to unmarried girls staying with their fathers and

367 claiming and obtaining a share in the paternal property.' The marriage ceremony was celebrated at the house of the bride and was a simple affair. There are many references to careful and industrious wives possessed of all those domestic virtues for which the Hindu wife has always been noted, who supervised household affairs and like the celebrated usas (dawn) roused and sent every one in the house to his work in the morning." Occasional references, however, are found to women going astray, to faithless wives, to maidens having no one to watch over their morals, to a ruined gambler's wife becoming the object of others' lust, etc.³ The custom of child marriage was unknown in the Vedic times, and polygamy was the privilege of the kings and the rich people as it has always been in olden times in all countries and among all nations. There was no prohibition to the remarriages of widows. celebrated was (down) roused and funt very one in It is in the Dharmasutras that we first find mention. of the eight (or six) different forms of marriage, which have been elaborated later on by the Smrtis. Vasistha and Apastamba recognized only six forms, viz., Brahma, Daiva, Arsa, Gandharva, Ksatra and Manusa, the last two being respectively named Raksasa and Asura by Apastamba. The first three forms in the above list are regarded as praiseworthy in the Apastamba. Gautama and Baudhayana, the older Dharmasutrakaras, however, mention eight forms of marriage, adding Prajapatya and Paisaca to the list, the former only being praiseworthy.* Thus we get four praiseworthy forms and four sinful forms of marriage. In a Brahma marriage, the father of the bride poured out libations of water and gave away his daughter to a suitor, a student. The Daiva marriage. consisted in the giving away of his bedecked daughter by her father to an officiating priest when a sacrifice was being performed. The father gave away his daughter for a cow or a bull in an Arsa marriage. The lover himself took away and wedded a loving damsel in the Gandharva form. Force was used in the the Ksatra (or Raksasa), marriage in which the bridegroom carried away a damsel destroying her relations by strength of arms. The Manusa (or Asura) marriage was a simple affair in which the suitor purchased a damsel from her father. In 1 Rgveda, II. 17. 7. 2 Rgveda, I. 124. 4. 3 Rgveda, II. 29. 1; IV. 5. 4 Of. Datta, Early Hindu Civilization, pp. 254-255. X. 34. 4.

368 66 the Prajapatya form, the father simply gave away his daughter to the suitor saying Fulfil ye the law conjointly". The Paisaca form was nothing more than a form of rape when a man embraced a woman deprived of consciousness. The Dharmasutras rigorously prohibited marriages among kinsfolk. The same gotra or pravara was excluded! for purposes of marriage as also was the relationship. within four degrees on the mother's side and six degrees. on the father's side.' Baudhayana, a southerner, allowed a man to marry the daughter of his maternal uncle or paternal aunt." There were no child marriages in the period of the Dharmasutras and remarriages were allowed only in the case of child widows. Messengers were sent by the bridegroom to the father of the bride reciting Rigveda X. 85. 23, and if the proposal was acceptable to both, the promise of marriage was ratified and both parties touched a vessel containing flowers, fried grain, barley and gold. The bridegroom then performed a sacrifice. On the appointed day, the bride took bath in fragrant water and then, putting on newly dyed garments, sat down by the fire at the sacrifice. The bridegroom also bathed and went through auspicious ceremonies and was escorted to the girl's house by young women (who were not widows). The actual marriage ceremony varied in detail in different localities but the essentials were the same. The bridegroom holding the bride by the hand led her thrice round the fire reciting some verses. The bride sacrificed to the fire laja or fried grain, which her brother or guardian had put in her hands. The bridegroom then caused the bride to step forward seven paces reciting suitable words. This going round the fire, sacrificing the lajas and the pacing of seven steps constituted the principal ceremonies of marriage. The couple then sat silent till the Polar Star appeared, and then the husband showed it to his wife saying "Firm be you, thriving with me". The wife replied, "I see the Polar Star; may I obtain offspring".* Then began the married life of the couple. The Mahabharata also mentions eight forms of 1 Cf. Vasistha, VIII, 1 and 2 ; Apastamba, II. 5, 11, 15, 16. 2, Baudhayana, 1. 1, 2, 4. 3 Datta, op cit., pp. 260-261.

369 marriage, but speaks of five as being current.' Brahma, Ksatra, Gandharva, Asura and Raksasa were in vogue. of which the last two were regarded as sinful. Brahma in those days perhaps included Daiva and Arsa of the Sutra times. The Brahma was specially recommended for the Brahmanas and it consisted in the offering of the bride to the bridegroom after honouring him with gifts, money, etc. The Ksatra was prescribed for both the Brahmanas and the Ksatriyas, but the manner has not been stated. Mr. Vaidya thinks that in the Ksatra marriages the bride was offered to one who successfully accomplished the condition laid down by the father of the bride. The Gandharva form, which was named as it was current among the Gandharvas on the Himalayas, was love marriage in which the bride had full power to choose the bridegroom of her liking. This form was prescribed mainly for the Ksatriyas. Of the two condemned forms, the Asura was the purchase of the bride by paying large sums of money to her relatives or to the bride herself. It was current among the Kekayas and the Madras at the period of the Mahabharata. In the Raksasa marriage the bride was forcibly taken away in spite of her protests after fighting with her relatives and slaying them. Though the bride was accepted in any of the above forms, the regular marriage ceremony was celebrated in the Brahma form. The Saptapadi and gave religious round the fire set the final seal m sanction to the marriage ceremony. 8 As regards the laws of marriage in the age of the Mahabharata, the male of each caste was allowed to marry a female of the same caste or of the lower caste or castes. Though the Brahmana could thus marry a woman of the Sudra caste, such marriages were censured and regarded as sinful. Vrsalipati (the Brahmana husband of a Sudra wife) was considered as unworthy of officiating at the $raddhas or of accepting gifts. The offspring of such intermarriages was taken to belong to the caste of its father. Later on, such offspring was taken to belong to a 1 Mahabharata, I. 74. 8-9. brahmo daivastathaivarsah prajapatyastathasurah ||8|| gandharvo raksasascaiva paisacascastamah smrtah | Cf. also. Mahabharata XIII. 44. 2 Upasamhara, p. 217. 3 Cf. Vaidya, Upasamhara, pp. 216-221.

370 Then marriages only Pratiloma marriages caste lower than that of its father. within one's own caste were praised. never received any sanction and were always condemned, There were no child marriages in the Mahabharata age also. The baneful custom originated with the Dharmasastras. Like the Sutras the Mahabharata was also in favour of the remarriage of child widows. Polygamy was, as ever, in vogue in those days. for a childless wido Reference must also be made here to the custom of Niyoga which prevailed in ancient India in common with similar customs among ancient people. The practice was to have intercourse with the brother or any near kinsman of her deceased husband to raise up issue to him, the son so born being called Ksetraja. The practice of Niyoga arose probably owing to the desire to have male issue to the deceased to add to the number of the constituents of any society, as in ancient times the strength of a society depended on its number. The restrictions were that only childless widows or childless women whose husbands were incapable for some reason to beget sons. could take advantage of the practice if permitted by their husbands or near relatives. The person to be selected for Niyoga was to be the brother of the husband or any other near relative or an honoured sage, so that savarna and strong and capable progeny was ensured; and as the begetting of a son was the main purpose of the practice, the sanction terminated as soon as a son was born. All the same, the practice of Niyoga was an exceptional one and did not survive long. It fell into disuse later on when there was growth of population and countries were thickly populated, and the system (of Niyoga) conflicted with the ideas of chastity (pativratya) of women which arose among the Aryans in India. In the Bharata age, we find that Pandu and Dhrtarastra, as well Pandu Dhrtarastra, as well as the five Pandavas were born of Niyoga. There are no instances of Niyoga in later times, and the system was condemned by the Dharmasastras as improper and as improper and sinful in the Kali age." As regards marriage in the Buddhist period, we find that usually there were three forms of marriage, viz., (1) 1 Cf. Vaidya, Upasamhara, 204-206. It is interesting to note in this connection that Kautilya allows Niyoga even in the case of Brahmanas, III. 6 (p. 163) cf. also I. 17 (p. 35). Contra, Manu, IX, 57-68.

371 In marriage arranged by guardians, (2) Svayamvara, and (3) Gandharva marriage, the first being the common form. Guardians of both parties, generally of the same caste and of equal rank, arranged marriages of their wards, which were akin to the Prajapatya form referred to above. the Svayamvara form, a girl publicly chose a husband for herself from amongst a number of suitors assembled in a Svayamvara-sabha convened for the purpose. The Gandharva form was love marriage in which the bride and the bridegroom selected each other without the knowledge of their relatives and no rites or ceremonies solemnized their marriage. Sometimes, there were marriages with seduced or abducted women. The marriage ceremony was celebrated on an auspicious day. The Jatakas and the Dhammapada commentary show that marriage of girls was celebrated with bath-money coming from their father. On the occasion of marriage the father of the bride gave her some village or treasures as bath and perfume money (nahanamulam, nhana cunnamulam)." I It appears there were no child marriages in the Buddhist period, the marriageable age of a girl was taken to be sixteen." The royalty and the rich people as usual in all countries practised polygamy. There was no prohibition against bigamy and jealousies and quarrels of co-wives are referred to. Remarriage of women was not unkown in that period and widow remarriage was not infrequent. Divorces which are unknown in Hindu marriages were allowed without any formal decree. The Hindu Law of exogamy was disregarded by the Buddhists. Even setting aside the story of sister marriage as unhistorical the idea itself being revolting to the Indians from ancient times, we find in the Buddhist works references to a number of cousin marriages which appear to have been usual.* Kautilya, in common with the Dharmasastras and the epics, mentions eight forms of marriage, four of which, viz., Brahma, Prajapatya, Arsa and Daiva were preferable being ancestral customs of old, and required the sanction of only the father. The remaining four forms, viz., 1. Cf. B. C. Law. Indian Historical Quarterly, II. pp. 565-569; K. A. Padhye, JASBOM, XV. pp. 58-59. 2 Dhammapada Commentary, Pali Text Society. Vol. III, p. 266; also Jatakas Nos. 239, 283. 3 Ja, Nos. 126, 262, 477; Dhammapada com. II. 217. 4 Ja, Nos. 26, 193, 262.

372 Gandharva, Asura, Raksasa and Paisaca required the sanction of both the father and the mother. That the progeny of Anuloma marriages was known by different caste names and was entitled only to maintenance from the estate of its father shows that such marriages were not approved. Pratiloma marriages were condemned and the sons begotten therefrom were said to originate from the king's violating his dharma.' The enumeration of different kinds of Pratiloma sons does not necessarily signify their existence in those days. The Arthasastra being the work of an encyclopadic character has included in the list every conceivable thing concerning different kinds of sons which was merely of academic interest, to give thoroughness to the book. In the age of the Arthasastra as also the Buddhist age, we come across some marriages among persons of different nationalities, the marriage of Candragupta Maurya with a Hellenic princess, daughter of Seleucus Nicator, serving as a glaring instance, which tend to show that there were no barriers to such marriages. 嘟� In the Dharmasastras or the Smrtis we come across the same eight forms of marriage as the Dharmasutras mention. Paisaca and Asura are strongly condemned as also the practice of receiving gratuity or nuptial fee for the daughter. The marriage age of girls has been much lowered by the Smrtis and the celebrated nagnika rule which held its sway till recent times on the general Hindu populace makes its first appearance in the Smrtis. The nagnika rule ordained that the best age for the marriage of a girl was when she could go on naked and was immature viz., eight. Some Smrtis even went to the length of attaching great sin to the parents of girls who remained unmarried till the age of puberty. Marriages between relations (sagotra and sapinda marriages referred to above) were strictly prohibited by the Smrtis. Widow remarriage was strictly condemned. Anuloma marriages though not approved were allowed, but the Smrtis were deadly against Pratiloma marriages. The difference between the attitudes towards the Anuloma and Pratiloma will be evident from the punishments prescribed for illicit connections of that nature; whereas a Sudra having illicit 2. 1 Arthasastra, III. 2, 5-7 (pp. 151-154; 160-165). 2 Cf. Manusmrti, III. 12-19; X. 6 ff.

373 connection with high caste women was condemned to death. illicit connection with Sudra women was merely punished." Throughout the whole period down from the Vedic time we find that the saptapadi was regarded as the most essential part of the marriage ceremony. It is interesting to note in this connection that even now, according to the Hindu Law, a marriage is valid and binding only after both parties have stepped seven paces; till then it is imperfect and revocable. 8 Now, turning to the plays of Bhasa, we find in them marriages exemplifying the following forms: Brahma, Ksatra, Gandharva, Raksasa and Asura. The marriage between Padmavati and Vatsaraja in the Svapnavasavadatta was in the most approved form (i.e., Brahma ), since king Darsaka (brother of Padmavati) himself offered the hand of his sister to Vatsaraja. As king Kasiraja had sent an emissary to king Kuntibhoja for the hand of the latter's daughter in marriage for his son Jayavarman, the marriage between prince Jayavarman and Sumitra belongs to the Ksatra form. The love marriage between Avimaraka and Kurangi naturally falls under the Gandharva form. The match between Udayana and Vasavadatta was cemented by love and hence, as stated by king Mahasena, the father of Vasavadatta, their marriage was under the Gandharva form. It may, however, also be taken to come under the Raksasa form as Vasavadatta was forcibly captured by Udayana. The marriage between. Dasaratha and Kaikeyi is neither mentioned in the Pratima nor does it form the principal part of the Pratima; but as there was a contract in the marriage to pay dowry (sulka) it comes under the Asura form." The relations between Sajjalaka and Madanika, and Carudatta and Vasantasena suggest Anuloma marriages. 5. Brahma and Ksatra marriages. For a regular marriage between the Ksatriyas, envoys and priests used to be sent to the father of the bride. References are found to the despatch of envoys (dutasampata) by Pradyota on behalf of his son to the court of the Magadha king for the and by various kings for the hands of hand of Padmavati e 1 Visvanatha, Racial Synthesis, p. 144. 2 Chunilal vs. Surajram, 33 Bom. 433, Anthikesavalu vs. Ramanujam, 32 Mad. 512; Brindavan vs. Chandra 12 Cal. 140. 3 Svapna, p. 48. 4 Avi, pp. 10, 11, 106, 107. 5 Pratijna, p. 72 also Svapna, p. 133. 22 6 Pratima, I. 15. -sulke vipanitam rajyam

374 Vasavadatta and Kurangi.' Marriages were contracted after considering and examining the problem from various aspects. The main factor in the view of the bride's father was the family of the bridegroom evidently for the sake of according with the rules of endogamy. The bride's father desired a celebrated family for the bridegroom. The next considerations were the qualities of the head and heart of the bridegroom. Preference was given to one with a sympathetic and soft heart. Then came the beauty of physical form, not from any inherent merit in it, but that the bride's father was required to look to the features of the bridegroom to save himself from the criticism of the women-folk on the bride's side. Strength and valour in a bridegroom also counted for much, as he was required to be sufficiently powerful to protect his bride. In addition to the consideration of merits in a bridegroom, the surrounding circumstances, political expediency and other eventualities were also taken into account, and then marriages were arranged avoiding undue haste and undue procrastination. One golden rule about the selection of a bridegroom is stated to be 'marry your daughter where there would be no cause for repentance'.* Vatsyayana also formulates the same general rule when he advises: 'marry the girl that will make you happy." Bride's parents consulted each other in regard to the selection of a son-in-law, and not only did the mother exercise her right in the affair, but her view carried I weight with her husband. The marriages of Vasavadatta and Kurangi were postponed in deference to the wishes of their mothers.鈸� It appears that the brides had some voice in the selection of their husbands." The marriage ceremony used to be celebrated at the house of the bride's father." Kautukamangala was a pre-nuptial rite of tying a piece of thread on the wrist. It was to be performed on an auspicious day. A garland 2 Svapna, p. 17; Pratijna, II, 8, pp. 28-29; Avi, pp. 10-11. There was an exception in the case of Udayana's marriage with Padmavati. Padmavati's brother himself offered her to Udayana when the latter had been to Rajagrha on some other mission, without any messenger coming from Udayana.-Svapna, pp. 47-49. Pratijna, Il. 4. 3 Avi, pp. 10-11. 4 Pratijna, p. 29 af 23 o zama 5. Chakladar, Social Life, p. 120. 6 Pratijna, p. 88; Avi, pp. 38-39, 7 Svapna, p. 43. bhattidaribha tena rakhna saha sambandham necchadi | ; Avi, p. 88. aham attano pabhavami | 8 Cf. the marriages of Padmavati, Sumitra and Karangi with Udayana, Jayavarman and Avimaraka.

375 named Kautukamala was put round her neck by the bride on this day, and, among other things, a particular herb credited with bringing in permanent prosperity and warding off calamities was generally entwined in the garland. There was also another herb to be employed in the garland reputed to ruin the co-wives. The palms of the bride were dyed red for marriage, as also were her parted hair. The female relatives of the bride went to receive the bridegroom who came in a specially fashioned car.³ Young women, who were not widows, escorted the bridegroom to the sacred fire for the marriage ceremony.* 2 There does not appear any reference to the influence of horoscopes and other astrological fads of which much was made in later times in settling a marriage. The priests only looked for an auspicious constellation on the day of marriage. The marriage ceremony was performed in right royal fashion with all the pomp and glory of decorations, ornaments, festivities and feasts." Gandharva. Gandharva, as already stated, is love marriage with consent. It has been described as 'concubinage' by the Allahabad High Court, but the form was none the less valid and prevailed among the Ksatriyas. The religious ceremonies performed subsequently, it is submittted, gave it a sanctity and sanction. The term now denotes remarriage among lower classes. In Bhasa's time religious rites were thought necessary to perfect the Gandharva (and Raksasa, if we include Vasavadatta's marriage in this category) marriage. Thus, though Avimaraka and Kurangi were already united by the Gandharva form, their marriage was celebrated in the presence of fire. The king of Avanti also performed the marriage ceremony of his daughter after her elopement, portraits being used in place of the bride and bridegroom, both being physically unavailable." This implies that ceremonies essential to the validity of a marriage, such as the invocation before the sacred fire and the saptapadi, were almost invariably performed in each and every marriage. The marriage of Dasaratha 1 Svapna, pp. 53-57. 2 Svapna, p. 40-.; Of. Woolner and Sarup, 13 Trivandrum Plays, I p. 47 p 2. 3 Uru, St. 9.fa 'bandhunaryah | 4 Svapna, p. 57. avivahi 5 Sapna, pp. 59-60. 6 Bhaoni. vs. Maharajsing. 3 All. 738. 7 Avi, p. 103. 8 Pratjna p. 72; Svapna, p. 133.

376 and Kaikeyi, though not referred to in our plays, was also celebrated according to dharma. Thus we may conclude that in all forms of marriages the religious ceremonies were performed according to the Brahma form after the carrying away of the bride by the bridegroom. The marriage of Avimaraka is important to us from the fact of its disregarding the rule of sapinda exogamy or consanguinity. In the Vedic times and the Buddhist age, as we have already seen, marriages with cognatic relations to the third degree were recognized.'" We have also seen that the Dharmasutras and the Smrtis fixed the limit, prohibiting marriages with maternal relations to the fifth (or seventh) degrees and paternal relations to the seventh degree. Now, in the Avimaraka, we find that the prince is marrying his maternal uncle's daughter, who was at the same time his paternal aunt's daughter.2 Marriage with a maternal uncle's daughter is not uncommon on this side, being recognized by Baudhayana and approved by local custom. Marriage with a paternal aunt's daughter, however, being rather uncommon and being with the third generation, suggests a fairly old time, before the composition of the Smrtis, which accords well with the time we have assigned to these plays. Finally, we come to the Anuloma marriage or hypergamy. Such marriages, as we have seen, though not approved were recognized. As we have already observed, these marriages were common in ancient times but were not favoured later on when the caste system held sway over the populace. By the time of Vatsyayana intercaste marriages were gradually growing unpopular, and Vatsyayana prescribed marriage only with a girl of the 1 Hindu Exogamy, p. 14. 2 The relationship will be clear from the following table; (8-son; D=daughter; M-married; Br. Brother). Duryodhana. Kuntibhoja (S) (M. Sister of Sauviraraja). Kurangi (D), Sumitra (D) Sumitra Sudarsana (D) (M. Kasiraja). Jayavarman (S) Sucetana (D) (M. Sauviraraja, Br. of Kuntibhoja's queen) Kuntibhoja' Avimaraka. (S) Avimaraka and Jayavarman were respectively married to Kurangi and

377 same caste. Love was permissible according to Vatsyayana with maidens of other castes, but not marriage." Carudatta and Sajjalaka were Brahmanas and they fell in love with courtesans who evidently did not belong to their castes. told any ceremonies were performed or whether any special form was necessary to legalize these marriages. We are not ? It is contended on the strength of stray uses of the word "Sambandha" in some of the plays that sambandha marriages current in South India are referred to in these plays." The argument is put forth to cast doubt on the authenticity of the plays and to show their southern origin and late date. Now, at all the places where the word sambandha is taken to refer to sambandha marriages, we find that the word is used in its simple sense of 'relationship' and not the technical sense which is sought to be attached to the word." Yet owing to the importance of the problem we deem it necessary to consider the point here. We are obliged to Mr. K. G. Sankar for enlightening us on the 'sambandha marriage'. "Sambandha is neither more nor less", writes he, "than civil marriage with right of divorce. The presentation of a cloth by the vara to the vadhu with a social dinner constitutes the entire ritual. No Sanskrit mantras are recited and Anuloma intercaste marriages are permitted, and the wife has the status of a legal wife, but she does not share the religious life of her husband and the husband does not interdine with his wife. The children of such marriage take the mother's caste. This is the popular form of marriage in Malabar except in the case of Brahmana women." Applying these requisites to the marriages of Vasavadatta and Kurangi which are alleged to be sambandha marriages, we find that neither can be styled as such by any stretch of imagination on any account. Both the husband and wife in these instances belong to the same caste, i.e., they are Ksatriyas, and their marriages are performed with religious ceremonies in the presence of fire with the chanting of mantras. There is again no question of the husband not interdining with the wife or the status of the of s of 1 Cf. Chakladar, Social Life, pp. 116, 117, 119. 2 S. Kuppuswami Sastri, Ascarya, Intr., pp. 26-27. 3 Pratijna, pp. 33, 34, 37, 73; Svapna, p. 43; Avi. 4 Letter dated 14-8-1932. Sambandha marriages are recognized in law if they are registered under the Malabar Marriage Act.-Kelkar and Khare, Hindu Law (in Marathi) p. 83.

378 children of such marriage, in the case of the two marriages under consideration as they are regular savarna marriages with Vedic rites. Further, there is absolutely no idea of the right of divorce in these old marriages. The idea is quite foreign, and we may say repugnant to the nature of either of the above princesses or their husbands in particular, and to the society of that period in general. Looking to the character and description of the princesses, we are inclined to think that they were quite grown up and that there were no child marriages in those days. In fact, as we have seen, the practice of child marriage is of quite a late origin in India. At the time of Vatsyayana, marriages both before or after puberty were equally common. Polygamy was then, as it is even now, a fashion among kings and rich persons. Monogamy seems to be generally prevalent among the commoners. There is to be found no reference to remarriages of widows or to divorce, and hence we cannot say anything about the view of the society in these matters at that time. 2 High ideals of the life of a husband and a wife are placed before us in the characters of the Svapnavasavadatta, Pratima. Carudatta, etc. Both husband and wife respected each other. The husband was the lord and protector of the wife, and the wife was half his body to the husband, the mistress of his household. It was the prime duty of a wife to follow her lord through thick and thin in spite of any defects in him, just as Tara follows the Moon in spite of its eclipse by Rahu, or as a creeper falls to the ground when its supporting tree tumbles down, or as the female elephant who does not abandon her mate though stuck into e mire.* Attendance on elders, especially the parents of the husband also comprised one of the duties of his wife. Her sole aim was the happiness of the husband and for the sake of ensuring it she sacrificed her personal likes and dislikes. She even consented to his marriage with another lady if that contributed to his good in the end." Vasavadatta and Padmavati, as already observed, supply us with the ideals of polygamy where the co-wives act as sisters and vie with each other in PP. 1 Cf. Vasavadatta, Kurangi and Padmavati. 2 Chakladar, Social Life, 125, 126. 'sarirardhena '; Bal, p. 10. 'gehalaksmi ' 4 Prat, 1.25. 3 Prat, I. 10 Prat, p. 33; Pratiina, p. 9. Cf. Vasavadatta in the Svapna.

379 their love and regard for their husband. There is no trace in our plays of the petty jealousies and quarrels of co-wives or of the unfaithful and unchaste women portrayed in the Buddhist writings. No sacrifice was considered too great for the sake of the husband, and the wife of poor Carudatta at once parts with her valuable pearl necklace, the gift from her relatives, after hearing of the theft and the sorry plight of her husband." Sita, though pure of body and heart, consents to undergo the fire ordeal to satisfy her lord. To a faithful, chaste and devoted wife her husband was her all-in-all, and his wish or desire was her sacred code of conduct." It was thought improper for a woman either to see a stranger or even to hear his praise. A man also avoided the sight of other women and was responsible for the welfare and happiness of his wife. In In Vatsaraja we have a considerate husband full of love for his dead wife. Rama and Sita from an ideal couple, preaching by their example respect to elders, devotion to each other, sacrifice for husband's sake, etc. 8 In short, in the characters of these plays we get. perfect husbands and wives; there is nothing supernatural. about them; they are thoroughly human, men and women of this world. 1 Car, pp. 83-86. 2 Mo, p. 19. padimattasammini padivvadatti nama | 3 Soapna, pp. 26, 55, 196. 4 4, p. 10; Soapna, p, 26.