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The Sanskrit word for a synonym is paryayavacana or more popularly simply paryaya which evidently is a shorter form for the earlier fuller expression. The synonyms are called paryaya-vacanas for they denote the same meaning in rotation, one by one, paryaya literally meaning 'rotation': paryayendrtham bruvata iti paryayah. Whether two or more words can ever express one and the same meaning is very difficult to say. There is a school of thought that behind the apparent synonymity of words there lie some subtle shades of meaning which can be detected either by a critical study of the context in which they are used or by tracing the semantical history of the words or through the comments offered sometimes by the commentators or their etymological interpretations. In a current language the process of their detection is comparatively easy: the usage itself limiting the words in particular shades only. To explain the point we may take up an instance from the English language. It has a number of words such as ride, scale, climb, mount in the sense for which the Sanskrit word is arohana. Now every one of these denotes arohana but each one of these denotes arohana on a different object . The difference in the senses of these words, therefore, rests on the object of arohana. Riding is arohana on horse, climbing on a tree or a pole or a mountain etc., scaling on a mountain and so on. Each word we thus see has a specific association with an object and differs in sense only with reference to those objects only. The Mahabhasyakara very vividly brings it out in his comment: niyatavisayah sabda drsyante. tad yatha - samane rakte varne gaur lohita iti bhavaty asvah sona iti . a

samane ca kale varne gauh krsna iti bhavaty asvo hema iti. samane ca sukle varne gauh sveta iti bhavaty asvah karka iti.' In classical languages like Sanskrit the minute difference in sense of the so-called synonyms has to be found out with some effort, for the source-material in their case is their old literature only. And there is difference evidently in literature and current speech. The difference in the sense-shades could apparently not be as manifest in literature as in current speech. And literature too cannot be taken in the process as one single entity. Its different `layers represent the process of the change-over of the speech from current coin to conventionalized vehicle of expression, from the speech of the masses to that of the classes. Thus the earlier the layer of literature the more helpful it is for the process of divination of finer distinctions in the meaning of the so-called synonyms. It is the earlier Sanskrit literature that has the largest incidence of the juxtaposition of the synonyms, a sharp pointer to a period when the fine distinction in the senses of the words was still maintained and not forgotten as in later period. As a matter of fact, the basic factor leading to the development of synonymity in words is the disappearance in them of the finer shades of meaning over a period of time. It is the approximation in sense that leads to synonymity and the promiscuous use of the words. This is what Ksirasvamin means when he offers the comment: tamalapatrakrti kasturya lalate tamalapatram, tilakakrti tilakam, citrakam nanavarnam, visinasti visesakam. ittham tilakabheda ete paryayatvam tv aduraviprakarsat, on the Amara line: tamalapatratilakacitrakani visesakam², tamalapatra is a sign by musk on the forehead of the form of tamalapatra, tilaka is of the form of sesame seed, citraka is of many colours, visesaka is a distinctive mark. Thus all these are different types of forehead -marks. Synonymity of them is due to the approximation of sense in them. Tendencies in Evolution of Synonymity 1. Words Originally in Relationship of Visesana and Visesya Old Sanskrit furnishes many examples of the words once

Sanskrit Synonyms 77 existing in the relationship of visesana-visesya, (an adjective and the word qualified by it) turning into perfect synonyms. The once visesanas appropriate to themselves the sense of the visesyas too and thus supplant them. A few of these are taken up below. It may incidentally be pointed out here that there is no fixity with regard to the character of the words in Sanskrit works. What serve as adjectives at one place serve as substantives in another. In the Rgveda instances quoted below the same prthvi or prthivi which is an adjective in prthivi mahi, bhumim prthivim is substantive in urvim prthivim. In the Ramayana too vihangama, a cognate of vihanga occurring as adjective in the verse quoted below is used as a substantive with khecara, the adjective: vane vanecarams canyan khecarams ca vihangaman.'3 Adhvara, Prthiivi and Urvi Even in as early a work as the Rgveda we meet with such instances, e.g., asvam na vajinam, urvim prthivim, prthivi mahi, bhumim prthivim", yajnam adhvaram³, etc. One each in these adhvara prthiivi and urvi, adhvard is an adjective to the other, "urvim, prthivim or prthivi mahi meaning the vast earth, yajnam adhvaram meaning non-violent sacrifice. Palasin, Sakhin, Vitapin and Vrksa In a Mahabharata verse four words palasin, sakhin, vitapin and vrksa, all signifying tree in later literature, are used side by side: m palasinam sakhinam ca tatha vitapinam punahi tam drstva jivitam vrksam kasyapena mahatmana i Of these the first three, palasin, sakhin and vitapin could be adjectives to vrksa meaning thereby a tree with leaves, branches and twigs. Purandara and Satakratu Ordinarily both of these mean Indra who comes to have various names on account of his greatness and a variety of

functions that he performs: mahabhagyat karmaprthaktvad va. When both of these mean Indra why should they then be used together? 10 This presupposes that one of them may be satakratu, is an adjective to purandara, satakratu meaning 'one (Indra) who is the performer of the hundred sacrifices'. Varuni and Madira In the Bhagavata verse we read varunim madiram pitva¹¹ Popularly varuni and madira are synonyms in the sense of wine. Here one of them, varuni, occurs as an adjective to madira which is a general term for wine. Varuni-madira means the wine prepared by Varuna, Varunanirmitam, as Vijayadhvaja would have it or the wine obtained from the churning of the milk-ocean, amrtamathanat udbhutam as Vallabhacarya would have it or the wine prepared from food, annamayim as Sridhara would have it. Vayu and Gandhavaha Convention makes gandhavaha a synonym of vayu. It does not require much of an ingenuity to see that one of these, evidently gandhavaha, is an adjective to vayu. Gandhavahavayu means the breeze carrying fragrance. In later literature one of these is used to signify breeze. Gandhavaha then may not be used in its derivative meaning but in earlier literature this is used in this meaning which is thought to be incomplete if the noun (in this case vayu) is not used with it. Hence the juxtaposition of these in the Bhagavata: tatra vayur gandhavahah.12 Vidyut and Saudamani Amara mentions both of them as synonyms: tadit saudamani vidyut, but that they are not proved by their frequent juxtposition a in the Epics and the Puranas. It appears that it had become a matter of habit with the authors of these works to couple them together. It is also interesting to note that the whole expression that we meet with in these works is vidyut saudamani yatha. This has become more or less a stereotyped phrase which is found as such in the Bhagavata too:

Sanskrit Synonyms 79 .a klah pradurabhut kale vidyut saudamani yathar¹³ ranjayanti disah kantya vidyut saudamani yathan¹4 Sridhara and Viraraghavacarya explain saudamani as the lightning which has its origin in the mount Sudaman. Now this is in perfect accord with the traditional interpretation of it. Panini forms the word by his sutra tenaikadik (IV. 3.112) which would give us the meaning of saudamani as sudamna ekadik, in the same direction as the mount Sudaman, which Visvanatha Cakravartin describes as sphatikamaya, made up of crystals. When coupled vidyut and saudamani stand in the relationship of visesanavisesya, the lightning arising or appearing in the direction of the mount Sudaman. Nilakantha, the commentator of the Mahabharata, has given an altogether different meaning of saudamani occurring together with vidyut in the Mahabharata verse: tatra sma rajate bhaimi sarvabharanabhusita sakhimadhye 'navadyangi vidyut saudamani yathalls It is in refreshing contrast with the traditional interpretation. Saudamani, according to him, means the lightning flashing forth from (lit. belonging to) the raining clouds: saudamani pravrsenyameghasambandhini. susthu jagato jivanam dadati te sudamano meghah, tesam samuhah saudamanah, pravrtkalas tatsambandhini sa hy atyantam dyotamana bhavatiti prasiddham. This interpretation appeals more to common sense. Vihanga and Paksin In the Ramayana line: tam vinatha vihango'sau paksi pranaditas tada 16, vihanga and paksin, are juxtaposed. One of them, evidently, vihanga, meaning literally 'flying in the sky'17 , is an adjective here. Paksin with vihanga would mean 'a bird flying in the sky'. At another place in the same work a similar word, khecara, meaning the same as vihanga is used as an adjective to paksin: simhavyaghravarahanam khecaranam ca paksinam.

. Upamana and Upameya Sometimes words which originally stood in the relationship of upamana, standard of comparison and upameya, the thing to be compared, turn into synonyms when the upamanavacin words among them appropriate to themselves the sense of the upameyavacin ones. This is best illustrated by the words ghana and vamsa. The former of these, ghana, occurs with abhra, in a number of verses in the Ramayana: i vividhabhraghanapannagocarah118 ii tam abhraghanasamkasam apatantam mahakapim 119 riii tad balam raksasendranam mahabhraghananaditam 120 Literally ghana means something solid, vide, Panini, murtau ghanah (3.3.77). In expressions like ghanam dadhi the dharma, the characteristic, is employed to denote the dharmin, the possessor of the characteristic, just as dadhi, etc., is said to be ghana, similarly the thick clouds are said to be abhraghana, the dissolution of the compound being abhram ghana iva or abhrasya ghano murtir iva, the solid mass of clouds. In course of time ghana originally meaning something solid, a mass, came to acquire the sense of cloud itself. As for vamsa, it primarily means bamboo. In the many instances in which it occurs together with kula in later literature: kulavamsavamsah, etc. it retains its characteristic of upamanavacitva with kula, the upameya. Vamsa, family, is so called because it is like vamsa, bamboo, vamsa iva iti vamsah. Just as a bamboo tree, vamsa, never grows alone, it develops into a full cluster , so it is hoped would do vamsa, a family. 3. Samanya and Visesa Sometimes the words originally signified a general thing which was later particularized. The word garutmat, for instance, signifies a bird, in general , vide Amara, nidodbhava garutmantah pitsanto nabhasangamah21 , but later came to signify a particular bird, garuda, too. Conversely the words which signified originally a particular thing came to acquire a general sense. The words sena, prtana

Sanskrit Synonyms 81 vahini etc., now all meaning army in general originally signified different formations of it of varied strength, as is clear from the Mahabharata verse: 8) sena pancasatam naga rathas tavanta eva ca dasa sena ca prtana prtana dasa vahini 11 22 Nilakantha's explanation of it is: " seneti. tatra gajanam rathanam ca tulyasankhyoktih purvoktasankhyopalaksanartha.tena pancavimsatisatani manusyah, pancadasasatam turaga ity api jneyam. prtanayam tu pancasahasram nara pancadasa sahasram asvah. vahinyam pancasatasahasram nagas tavanto rathah sardhalaksadvayam nara sartha (rdha?) laksam asva iti jneyam. "Five hundred elephants, the same number of chariots, 2500 men and 1500 horses constitute the Sena. Prtana has 5000 men and 15,000 horses. Vahini has 50,000 elephants, the same number of chariots, a quarter of a million of men and 50,000 horses.". Some synonyms originally stood in the relationship of visesya and samanya, particular and general. Different aspects or types of a thing had a different word for them. But all these could be expressed through a common word too. Thus krodha, droha, irsya and asuya had a common word kopa. The Mahabhasyakara's comment on Panini krudhadruhersyas jayarthanam yam prati kopah (1.4.37) brings it out very clearly and bears reproduction in full: Irs kim eta ekartha ahosvin nanarthah? kim catah? yady ekarthah kimartham prthan nirdisyante. atha nanarthah katham kupina sakyante visesayitum? evam tarhi nanarthah , kupau tv esqh asm sanmayam asti. nahy akupitah krudhyati, na va 'kupito druhyati, na va 'kupita irsyati, na va 'kupito 'suyati.23 For eating Sanskrit has words like bhojana, khadana, bhaksana etc. which represent its different types : kharavisadasyarthasyabhayavaharanam khadanam, dantavyaparapurvakam nigaranam etc., eating of a hard thing existing severally is CC-0. Prof. Satya Vrat Shasth Collection, New Delhi. Digitized by S 3 Foundation USA

ap 82 Grammar and Linguistics khadana, swallowing preceded by chewing is bhaksana and so on. All of these, however, have a common word which is abhyavahara. Under Panini samuccaye samanyavacanasya the Kasika gives the illustration: odanam bhunksva saktun piba, dhanah khadety evayam abhyavaharati. abhyavaharati is the samanyavacana here. cap. How Things Differ from each other in Meaning Up to now we have been dealing with the broad tendencies of development of synonymity in words. We now take up a few -pairs of the so-called synonyms for finding precise distinction in their meanings on the basis of textual or commentarial evidence. Amarsa and Kopa This pair is found in the Bhagavata in the verse kopamarsasucarpitah.24 About kopa we come to know from Patanjali comment under Pan. krudhadruhersyasuyartharthanam yam prati kopah (1.4.37), as reproduced above, that it is something common to all these krodha, droha etc. which though distinct among themselves have their commonness in kopa: kupau tv esam. samanyam asti. To find out the exact signification of kopa we would better reproduce here the brilliant comment of Kaiyata: nanu kopah krodha eveti bhedabhavat katham paurvaparyam, evam tarhi, prathamam anudbhutam kopavastham dvitiyam a codbhutam vikrtvakkayavyaparanumiyamanamasritya etad uktam. According to him kopa is the unmanifested anger while krodha is the manifested anger which can be inferred from the distorted speech, body and action. What follows from this is that kopa is an internal phenomenon while krodha is an outward manifestation of it. Amarsa is explained in the next pair. Amarsa and Rosa The Ramayana text says, amarsaprabhavo rosah.25 rosa results from amarsa. amarsa, as is clear from its formation is from 鈭歮rs 'to tolerate' with the negative particle nan compounded with it. It means ' intolerance' primarily. rosa is from 鈭歳us 'to injure', cap

Sanskrit Synonyms 83 'to harm', rusa risa himsayam. It primarily means violence. Under the Malatimadhava line yauvanarambhabharitadurvisahamarsarosa etc. the commentator Tripurari explains these (amarsa and rosa) as intolerance and anger: aksamakrodhau or long persisting anger and temporary anger: yad va sthirakrodhatatkalikakopau respectively. This seems to be right in view of the popular saying: krodhah krtaparadhesu sthiro'marsatvam asnute. That amarsa is sthirakrodha while rosa is tatkalikakopa further gets an indirect support from the well-known saying: ksane rustah ksane tustah where rustah is coupled with ksane, rosa being ksanikakopa or as said above, tatkalikakopa. It is a pair which occurs most frequently in literature. In Bhagavata it is found in the verses: 212 F bhrsam amarsarosavesa...26 ga adideva upasamhrmatamrastosavego lokanam svastaya aster ahamarsarusavistah kasayibhutalocanah28 namucis tadvadham drstva sokamarsarusanvitah9 The consensus among the commentators of the Bhagavata where they occur together is that amarsa is asahana 'intolerance', while rosa is krodha, 'anger' or vapuso dahanan or vapuso in dahah, which means the heating up of the body or to put it differently 'flaring up'. Jivagosvamin's interpretation is different. Amarsa he explains as asahisnuta, 'intolerance' and rosa as tatdutthah krodhah, the anger resulting from it. This sounds reasonable and inline with Valmiki's statement reproduced above, amarsaprabhavo rosah, 30 rosa is what results from amarsa. Amarsa, therefore, is the purvavastha, first stage, of rosa which from being derived from 鈭歳us implies in it an element of causing injury (himsayam). Sukadeva seems right in his comment: aparadhasahanam amarsah, aparadhidamanacesta rosah. By an analysis of what has been said above it comes out that the difference in the interpretation of the words as shown above is only superficial. Deeper there lies an agreement which can be discovered by a link up of the seemingly different viewpoints. Thus amarsa is such an intolerance (asahanam) as may continue for a longer period, a simmering anger persisting for long T

(sthirakrodha) during which one may go on thinking of the means by which to harm the enemy (satror apakaropayacintanam)31 while rosa is that upsurge of the emotion (krodha) which may so work up a man as to excite him to inflict an injury (aparadhidamanacesta) on the wrong-doer. Amatya and Mantrin That these words have a clear difference in their meanings is shown by the commentators while offering their comment under the Bhagavata verse: api darah prajamatyah bhrtyah srenyo 'tha mantrinah.32 Sridhara and Viraraghava explain mantrin as mantrasahaya counsellor and amatya as karmasahaya, administrator. Vijayadhvaja explains mantrin as buddhisahaya which is much the same as the mantrasahaya of the commentators referred to above. It seems the author of the Ramayana must have had this very sense of mantrin in his mind when he used it in connection with the counsel that Ravana had (mantrayamasa) with his ministers: tasya tac chasanam srutva mantrino 'bhyagaman drutami tatas ca mantrayamasa raksasaih sacivaih saha|| 33 The etymology of mantrin too suggests the predominance of the element of counsel in it: mantrayata iti mantri.34 Similarly the etymology of amatya suggests the predominance of the element of remaining together (ama-together) with the king for the discharge of the administrative duties. T. Ganapati Sastri is, therefore, very right when he interprets amatya as karmasaciva. It is interesting to note that these words have been explained in two different ways by the Ramayana commentator Rama. At one place he gives the distinction in their meaning as: amatya desadikaryanirvahakah, mantrino vyavaharadidrastarah, which means amatyas are those who carry on the government while mantrins are those who look into matters judicial. At another place he assigns the meaning upamantrin to amatya, thereby implying that the mantrins were senior in rank to the amatyas.³ 35 1-J

Sanskrit Synonyms 85 The above discussion would lead us to the following conclusion. The amatyas were the executive heads but junior in rank to the mantrins who provided counsel to the king and were also in charge of the administration of justice in the country. Anarthaka and Aparthaka In the Vimanasthana, Caraka enumerates the speech defects. Among them he mentions the two, anarthaka and aparthaka, and himself proceeds to explain the difference in them as: anarthakam nama yad vacanam aksaragramamatram eva syat pancavargavan narthataya grhyate, aparthakam nama yad arthavat parasparena cayujyamanarthakam. yatha... cakranakravamsavajranisakara iti.36 anarthaka is that speech which is a mere conglomeration of a number of vocables, it does not convey any meaning..., aparthaka is that speech which does have some meaning but which lacks coherence. Asru and Baspa Both these mean tears. But they do have some distinction in them. Baspa is kantharodha, choking in the throat, vide, the / Ramayana line: basih pihitakanthas ca preksya ramam yasasvinam.37 pihitakanthatva or kantharodha, obstruction in throat, is described to have been caused by baspa. In the Sakuntala kantha, throat, is said to be stambhita, choked, by baspa: kanthah stambhitabaspavrttikalusah.38 Raghavabhatta explains baspa as the first stage of the tears: asrunah purvavastha baspam. It is interesting that in the Ramayana itself this fine distinction in asru and baspa seems to have got blurred and baspa came to be used even for tears, e.g., kausalya vyasrjad baspam pranaliva navodakam 39 baspaprasravanair mukhaih 140 Atithi and Abhyagata cap These words occur in the Bhagavata prose passage: yas tviha # atithin abhyagatan va.41 Viraraghava, Visvanatha and Sukadeva point out that atithis are those guests who are unknown while

abhyagatas are those who are known: atithayo 'jnatapurvah abhyagata jnatapurvah. Bandhu and Jnati These are juxtaposed in the Bhagavata verses: bandhujnatyarimadhyasthamitrodasinavidvisah42 and na jnatibandhur na paro na ca svah.43 Sridhara and Visvanatha Cakravartin differentiate between them thus: bandhavah vivahadibhih sambandhinah, jnatayah sapindah, bandhus are those who become relatives due to marriage 44 while jnatis are those who are sapindas. According to Kulluka jnatis are relations on the paternal side: jnatayah pitrpaksa bandhavas (the same as bandhus), a according to him, are relations on the maternal side: bandhavah matrpaksah. It may be noted here that Kulluka is reproducing in his own words what the earlier commentator Medhatithi 45 wrote. According to the Ramayana Commentator Rama jnatis are the relations such as brothers and the like: jnatayah bhratradayah which would imply their relationship on the paternal side. According to Vamana, the co-author of the Kasika, jnatis are the relations on the maternal and as well as the paternal side: jnatayah matrpitrsambandhino bandhavah. It appears strange as to how Vamana could extend the meaning of jnati to the relationship on the maternal side as well though the tradition would restrict it to the paternal side only. The meaning of jnati given by Kulluka, viz., bhratradayah seems nearer the truth. The usage appears to uphold it. In the Mahabharata there is a mention of a type of son called sajnatiretah.47 Under this we have the following illuminating comment of Nilakantha: jnatireta vyavahitabhratradeh putrah, sarvesam ekaputranam yady ekopi bhavet sutah, etc. Again in the Ramayana there occurs the word jnati in a verse uttered by Ravana: jqnami silam jnatinam sarvalokesu raksasa hrsyanti vyasanesv etc jnalinam jnatayah sada1148 Now it is to be remembered here that Ravana is directing these words against Vibhisana, his brother. The context in which

Sanskrit Synonyms 87 this word occurs would leave no room for doubt that it means brothers etc., bhratradayah, the meaning assigned to it by Kulluka. Dhvaja and Pataka These are found juxtaposed in the Bhagavata verses: citradhvajapatakagrair antahpratihatatapam 149 caityadhvajapatakabhir yuktah vidrumavedibhih1150 Sridhara explains them as: garudadicihnankita dhvajah, jayapradayantrankitah patakah, dhvajas are the ones with some emblem of garuda etc. on them while patakas are the ones which carry on them some yantra ( a mystical astronomical diagram) for victory. While explaining the second verse quoted above, he dissolves the compound dhvajapatakabhih as dhvajesu patakas tabhih which implies that the patakas must have been planted on the dhvajas. It is interesting to note that the words occur together in a number of verses in the Ramayana too. There the commentator Rama offers different comments under two different verses. Thus under pandurabhih patakabhih dhvajais ca samalamkrtam,51 he explains patakas as suksmadhvajah, small flags, thereby implying that dhvajas are the bigger flags. Under dhvajah samucchritah sadhu patakas cabhavans tatha,52 he explains patakas as cihnarahitah, the ones without any emblem. He seems to be relying on some older tradition for he concludes his remarks by saying ity ahuh. Now this view is clearly opposed to the one of Sridhara according to whom patakas too have a yantra embossed on them and can, therefore, not be cihnarahitah, without any mark or emblem. It is difficult to say as to which of the two viewpoints is correct and represents the genuine tradition. But in this there may be truth that dhvajas were bigger in size as compared to the patakas. Dipti, Kanti and Dyuti These all means lustre but each one of them is restricted by usage for the lustre of a different object. In the Mahabharata these

a 88 Grammar and Linguistics are used with reference to three different objects, each going with one, according to the figure of speech yathasankhya: diptikantidyutigunaih suryendujvalanopamah.53 Dipti goes with surya, kanti with indu and dyuti with jvalane, i.e. the lustre of the sun is dipti, that of the moon is kanti and that of the fire is dyuti. Elsewhere too in the same work we have the same specification: ubhau candrarkasadrsau kantya diptya ca bharata. 54 The Ramayana, however, goes slightly different. It mentions dyuti as that of divakara; the sun; e.g., kantisridyutibhis tulyam indupadmadivakaraih.55 Hasta and Pani With regard to these, there is difference in meaning. Hasta originally meant the fore-arms which is borne out by the use of it as a measurement of length signifying/angulas or two vitastis. Pani, however, is that part of the hasta which begins with the wrist (manibandha) and ends with the fingers, cf. Sayana's comment: manibandhad urdhvabahuh panih under the Rgveda verse: tav asvina bhadrahasta supani.56 Keyura and Angada Amarakosa mentions keyura and angada as synonyms: n keyuram angadam tulye. But their juxtaposition in a number of verses in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata would preclude such a possibility. The verses where they occur are: jatarupamayair mukhyair angadaih kundalaih subhaih sahemasutrair manibhih keyurair valayair api 1157 angadani ca citrani keyurani subhani ca 58 keyurangadavaidurya...59 angadaih pariharyais ca keyurais ca vibhasitan.60 The distinction in their meaning is brought out by the Ramayana commentators Rama, Govindaraja and Mahesvaratirtha in the following words: m angadam bahumuladharyam bhusanam, keyuram tadadhobhagastham; angadaih kurparoparidhayair

Sanskrit Synonyms 89 bahubhusanaih, A keyurair bhujasirovyapipha- nakarasikharayuktabahubhusanaih; angadam urdh-vakaram patralatacitritamm bahumuladharyam bhusanam, keyuram tasyadhobhage dharyam valayakaram bhusanam respectively. The commentators differ only in peripheral details. In essentials they are saying one and the same thing. Kledana and Undana Paniniya Dhatupatha reads: niundi kledane. This shows that both undana and kledana are synonyms. Yet the Bhagavata juxtaposes them in the verses: kledanam pindanam trptih prananapyayanondanam.61 There is a difference of opinions among the commentators with regard to the precise signification of these words. Sridhara, Visvanatha Cakravartin and Sukadeva explain kledana as ardrikarana to make wet and undana a mrdukarana, to make soft. Vijayadhvaja and Vallabhacarya explain undana as bindubhava, to turn into drops and prerana, to push, respectively, which have little to appeal. They, however, find themselves in company with the above mentioned three commentators so far as the meaning of kledana is concerned. A Lata, Valli and Virudh 7 Under the Mahabharata verses: latavallis ca vegena vikarsan pandunandanahi vrksagulmalatavallyas tvaksaras trnajatayah 63 Nilakantha offers diametrically opposite comments. Under the first verse he says lata bhucara, valli vrksacara. Lata moves on says: lata the ground, valli on the tree. Under the second verse he vrksadyarudha guducyadayah, vallyo bhumiprasara varsamatrasthayinyah kusmandadyah, latas hang on the trees etc. like guduci and so on while vallis such as kusmanda etc. spread on the ground, and stay there for a year. Under another verse vallilatasankatesu kutajesu sthitams tatha 64 he offers an altogether different interpretation: vallinam latapratanani which does not

make much sense. It seems he is confused here. A closer look at the Mahabharata text itself would have revealed to him the distinction in the meaning of the words. The Mahabharata t m latadharma dhartarastrah salah sanjaya pandavahi na lata vardhate jatu anasritya mahadrumam 165 valli valayate vrksam sarvatas capi gacchati says: Latas hang on the trees. So do the vallis with this difference that they, in addition, coil round them. The Ramayana commentators Rama and Satyatirtha are right when they explain vallis as vrksadyasritah and vrksalingitah respectively. They explain virudhs as bhumyadharah and sthalalatah, the creepers 鈾� on the ground. Ksiravamin explains valli as valate vestate valli, guduci, gudcyadir madhavyadis ca which is in line with what has been said above. madhavis etc. are the creepers which hang xp on the trees and coil round them. Lata and Virudh The Amarakosa itself distinguishes between these words when it says valli tu vratatir lata pratanini virudh gulmini. Valli, vratati and lata are synonyms but virudh, pratanini and gulmini too are synonyms. Now lata second time occurs in the company of pratanini and gulmini, the descriptive words, which would no doubt determine its character. Virudh, therefore, would be that lata which would spread far (pratanini) and which would look like a shrub, gulmini. This is in effect what Katya, an old lexicographer quoted by Ksirasvamin , says: pratanasatagamini. Now it may be remarked here that the difference between the two is not based solely on the fact that one (virudh) is more spread out (pratanini) than the other (lata). While commenting on these words occurring together in the Bhagavata verse: vanaspatyosadhilatatvaksara virudho drumah 66 Sridhara says: lata arohanapeksah, latas are those which need hanging on to (trees), virudhah kathinyenarohananapeksah, virudhs are those which scarcely need hanging on (to trees). Viraraghara and Vijayadhvaja, however, explain lata

Sanskrit Synonyms 91 as arohanapeksah and parasrayabalah respectively and are in agreement with Sridhara in substance. Because they are parasrayabalah, they need some support, they are arohanapeksah, they need hanging on to (trees). It is interesting to note that the Mahabharata too says, very much the same thing: latadharma dhartarastrah salah sanjaya pandavah, na lata vardhate jatu anasritya mahadrumam.67 The latas do never grow without the support of the great trees. Now we come to virudh. It is with regard to it that Viraraghava and Vijayadhvaja offer different comments. They explain them (virudhs) as gulmarupah and kandaruhani gulmani respectively which mean that according to them virudhs are nothing but clusters of creepers growing on reeds. This is altogether a new interpretation. A similar new interpretation we find in the Tilaka, a comment on the Ramayana, 68 too. There while pointing out the difference between valli and virudh the words juxtaposed in the text it says: virudho bhumyadharah, virudhs are those which spread on the ground. Ksirasvamin while commenting on this word quotes an old lexicographer Katya, according to whom virudh is a creeper with its leaves intertwined with each other and spreading with hundreds of tendrils: virut suparnajatila pratanasatagamini. It is just possible that these comments which now look different may be representing in them the different facets of one and the same thing. Virudhs may be those creepers which may easily hang on trees, grow in clusters and spread with hundreds of tendrils. Madhyastha and Udasina These are juxtaposed in the Bhagavata verse: bandhujnatyarimadhyasthamitrodasinavidvisah.69 They are generally rendered as indifferent and are regarded as synonyms. Their juxtaposition in the above verse prompts the commentators to make attempts to distinguish between them. Thus according to sridara madhyasthas are those who are other than friends or foes: ubhayavyatiriktah, vidviso dravyadinimittena

dvesinah, vidviss are those who are inimical due to monetary considerations, udasinas tadvyatiriktah, udasinas are those who are other than them. According to Visvanatha Cakravartin madhyasthas are those who are friendly outwardly but inimical inwardly: madhyastha bahirantar maitrivairavantah, udasinas are those who are devoid of both friendship and enmity: maitrivaira- sunyah. Maru and Dhanvan Amara reads: samanau marudhanvanau, maru and dhanvan have the same meaning. The author of the Bhagavata, however, seems to distinguish between them. That is why he uses them together in the verse: marudhanvam atikramya sauvirabhirayoh parani anartan bhargavopagac chrantavaho manag vibhuh 1170 Sridhara brings out the distinction in their meanings in these words: marur nirudakadesah, maru is a land without water, dhanvo'lpodakah, dhanvan is a land with scarcity of water. Vallabhacarya, however, gives exactly the contrary meanings. According to him maru is a land with scarcity of water: marur alpodakadesah, while dhanvan is a land with no water, dhanvo nirudakadesah. It appears out of these interpretations it is the one by Sridhara which is nearer the truth for it has for its support the comment of Nilakantha too. Under the Mahabharata verse: tatah sarasvatikule samesu marudhanvasu | kamyakam nama dadrsur vanam munijanapriyam 1171 t.c. He (Nilakantha) interprets maru as a land without water: marusu nirjaladesesu and dhanvan as the arid lands (which are by their very nature alpodakas): dhanvasu jangaladesesu. Under another verse mrgan vidhyan varahams ca ramyesu marudhanvasu 72 he interprets dhanvan as alpajalapradesa which is the same as alpodaka (desa) of Sridhara: marur nirudakadesah, dhanvo'lpodakah. Now for maru both the commentators are agreed. About dhanvan there seems some difference. While according to one it is jangaladesa, arid land, according to the

Sanskrit Synonyms 93 other it is one with little water: alpodako desah. The difference, however, is superficial. alpodakatva is one of the special features a of jangaldesa which is explained by Caraka as: LIZ alpodakadrumo yas tu pravatah pracuratapah jneyah sa jangalo desah svalparogatamo'pi ca.3 Matsara (or Matsarya) Irsya and Asuya 73 i 11 In the following two verses of the Bhagavata the pairs of matsarya and irsya-asuya and matsara and asuya are found juxtaposed: a matsaryersyavamana 74 mano 'vamanosuya ca maya himsa ca matsarah.75 76 + Under first quotation the commentators have offered no comment while under/second it is only Viraraghavacarya who has the attempted a comment. Thus about asuya he says: asuya gunesv api dosaviskarah, asaya is to look for faults even in good points. _ 驴d About matsara he says: matsarah parakrtadros hacinta, matsara is the anxiety caused by somebody else's enmity. About irsya we have to depend upon other sources like Nilakantha's comment on the Mahabharata verse: irsya jugupsa ca manusyadosah varjyah sada,16 irsya prakarsasahisnuivam, to be intolerant of somebody else's rise and the comment of Kaiyata on the Mahabhasya, under Pan. krudhadruhersyasayarthanam yam pratikopah (1.4.37) such as paragunasahanam, intolerance towards others' virtues, which is the meaning assigned to matsara (paragunasahisnutvam) by Nilakantha. Asuya is explained by Kaiyata as: paragunavidhvamsanam, 'to decry others' qualities'. Vamana (the joint author of the Kasika), however, explains asuya (under the very sutra quoted above) as gunesu dosaviskaranam which is the same as gunesu satsv api dosaviskarah of Viraraghavacarya quoted above and paragunesu dosaropah, paragunesu dosadarsanam and paragunesu dosaviskaranam of Nilakantha under the Mahabharata verses: anasuyur anuprasta satkrtas te purohitahi 77 krpasuye manasokau sprha cai

irsya jugupsa ca manusyadosahi 78 amatsaryam hris titiksa'nasuyal 79 Irsya is explained by Vamana and Bhattoji both as aksama, intolerance, which is much the same as parotkarsasahisnutvam of Nilakantha and paragunasahanam of Kaiyata. Now about irsya and asuya there is a near unanimity of approach on the part of the commentators who put us wise on them. It is about matsara that the difference is found between Viraraghavacarya and Nilakantha. Between these two it appears the former is more reasonable for the meaning of matsara as given by the latter is assigned to irsya by more than one commentator. Nada and Nadi This pair is found in the Bhagavata verse: nada nadyas ca santy asankhyatah.80 Under this Viraraghava's comment is that nadas are those that generally flow to the west. By implication it would appear that nadis are those that flow to the directions other than the west, say the east. This interpretation is in consonance with the one given by Kataka under a Ramayana verse,81 viz., pascimapravaha nadah. The same view is held by Mallinatha too who while commenting upon a Sisupalavadha verse 82 reproduces the age-old accepted view in the following words: praksrotaso nadyah, pratyaksrotaso nadah, Narmadam vinetyahuh. the only cap discordant note here is struck by Rama who while commenting upon a Ramayana verse gives altogether a different meaning of nada. He takes it to be a rivulet, nara as he calls it: nara iti lokaprasiddham. But then we don't have any other authority to support such an interpretation. In view of the overwhelming evidence cited above little reliance can be placed on it, more so, when we have a verse from such a work as the Mahabharata which goes to support the former view. This verse occurs in the context of the description of the many unnatural things that are said to have taken place when Krsna left for Duryodhana's camp to sue for peace on behalf of the Pandavas. It is said there that the great nadis (mahanadyah) though facing the east began to flow to the west : pratyag uhur mahanadyah pranmukhah

Sanskrit Synonyms 95 sindhusattamah.83 This gives us the very valuable clue: the natural flow of the nadis is to the east, they are praksrotasas. When a part of the interpretation of Mallinatha is upheld by usage it would stand to reason that the other part, viz., pratyaksrotaso nadah, the nadas flow to the west, too would be in accordance with it. Nyasa and Niksepa They occur together in the Kamasutra which reads: prasrte ca paricaye tasya haste nyasam niksepam ca nidadhyat.84 The commentary Jayamangala explains them as nyasah sthapyas cirakalagrahyah niksepo 'lpakalagrahyah, and so nyasas and niksepas are long-term and short-term deposits respectively. Sikata, Sarkara and Valuka These are used rather promiscuously in Sanskrit. Under the Mahabharata verse bumipasanasikatasarkaravalukabhasmah. sayinah85 where they occur together. Nilakantha brings out the dfifference in them as sikatah suksmapasanapamsavah, sarkara karkarasahita mrt, valuka laghupalamisrah sikata eva, sikata is minute stony particles, sarkara is gravel, valuka is nothing but sikata mixed with pebbles. Suhrd, Sakha and Mitra The following are the Bhagavata verses where any two of these so-called synonyms are found to occur together: (i) yam manyase matuleyam priyam mitram suhrttamam 86 (ii) sakhyam maitrin sauhrdam ca m (iii) Dvaipayanasuhrtsakha³8 (iv) visvasuhrtsakhasya⁹9 (v) tasyaiva me sauhrdasakhyamaitri dasyam punar janmani janmani syati 90 Under (i) Sridhara's comment is: mitram prattikartaram, suhrttamam upakaran anapeksyopakarakam, mitra is one who provides happiness, suhrd is one who does good to others without expecting anything in return. Under (ii) we have varying comments of commentators like Sridhara, Viraraghava, i

Vallabhacarya Visvanatha Cakravartin and Sukadeva. Sridhara i Viraraghava sakhyam hitaisitvam, maitrim upakaritam sauhrdam hitaisitvam, mitratvam priyaisita, samasilatvam sakhitvam. Vallabhacarya samasilavyasanatvam sakhyam, guhyagopanagunaprakatikaranapadgatatyagadidharmavatvam maitri. V. Cakravartin premna parasparapranatvam (parasparahitaisitvam) sakhyam, dasyamisram sakhyam/sauhrdam maitrim vatsalyamisram sakhyam. 3 am. / Sukadeva sakhyam samanasilatvam, maitrim upakaritve sati pratyupakaranapeksa sauhrdam hitaisitvam. Under the commentators offer the following comments: Sridhara saudhrdam prema, sakhyam hitasamsanam, maitrim upakarakatvam. V.Cakravartin sauhrdam snehah, sakhyam sahavasthayitvamayah pranayah, maitri bandhubhavah. It is worthwhile now to compare the meanings of the words given by the commentators removing the twist in them due to the secondary suffixes. Three of the commentators interpret sakha as samasila or samanasilavyasana and in this they are most probably guided by the well -known old line: samanasilavyasanesu sakhyam. Two of them interpret it as hitaisi. Two commentators interpret suhrd as hitaisi while the other two as premi or snehi. All these comments are very general ones and can fit in anywhere. .c. Three Commentators interpret mitra as upakaraka, one of whom also qualifies him as pratyupakaranapeksa. One interprets it as bandhu which again is a very general comment. One adopts the descriptive method in explaining it: guhyagopana etc. as given above. This too preserves in it the element of upakarakatva. With all this variety of interpretations available in the Bhagavata commentaries it is very difficult to arrive at any agreed

Sanskrit Synonyms 92 97 conclusion. The confusion is not typical of the Bhagavata commentators. It is found elsewhere too. Thus while the Ramayana commentator Rama⁹1 interprets suhrd as upakriyamulasakha, one whose friendship is based on a past favour, the Mahabharata commentator Nilakantha interprets it as pratyupakaram anapeksyopakarakarta. This is the same as given by Sridhara under verse (i) quoted above. About mitra Nilakantha's comment is that he is one who does good expecting a return: pratyupakaram apeksyopakarakartaram, the reverse of the meaning assigned by Sukadeva to suhrd. Because Nilakantha's and Sridhara's comments about suhrd tally it would be worth considereing as to how far Sukadeva is correct. The et words suhr etc. are found described in a popular verse too which for proper appreciation requires reproduction here: atyagasahano bandhuh sadaivanugatah suhrti ekakriyam bhaven mitram samapranah sakha matahll Tarjana and Bhartsana The Dhatupatha of Panini reads tarja bhartsa bhartsane thereby implying their synonymity. But their juxtaposition in the Ramayana verses: bhartsitam tarjitam va 'pi nanumamsyati raghavahi 93 tarjapayati mam nityam bhartsapayati casakrt II would preclude it. The distinction in their senses is very well brought out by Rama, the commentator, who says: avaciki bhisika tarjanam, vaciki tu sa bhartsanam iti; bhartsana is threatening by words, tarjana is threatening by bodily movements. Literature also corroborates this. We have in the Sakuntala: sakhim angulya tarjayati where threatening is by a finger, certainly a kayiki bhisika. Amara explains bhartsana as the threatening words: bhartsanam tv apakaragih95 which evidently is vaciki bhisika. Udyana, Upavana and Arama Lexicons list all of them as synonyms having the sense of a garden. They, however, occur together in the Bhagavata verse:

udyanopavanaramair vrtapadmakarasriyam. Sridhara and Visvanatha Cakravartin explain them in the following words, udyanam phalapradhanam, upavanam puspapradhanam, aramah kridartham vanam, udyana is a garden with more of fruits, upavana is a garden with more of flowers, arama is a garden meant for play. The only difference in Vallabhacarya's comment on these words is that it reverses the order of the interpretations of udyana and upavana as given by Sridhara and Visvanatha. According to Vallabhacarya udyana is puspapradhanavatika, a garden with more of flowers and upavana is phalapradhanam (a garden) with more of fruits. About arama he is in agreement with Sridhara and Visvanatha. Viraraghava and Vijayadhvaja offer different interpretations of these words. Viraraghava explains udyana as rajnam kridasthanam, a pleasure grove for the kings. Upavana he explains as vanasamipastha, a garden in the vicinity of a forest, an explanation evidently inspired by the very primary meaning of the word (up=near, vana-forest). Arama he explains as krtaka, a garden which is laid out (not natural). Vijayadhvaja explains udyana as a pleasure garden for the kings where they can play with ladies etc; pramadadibhih saha rajnam kridabhumibhih, upavana as the grove of trees not very far from the city: upavanair nagaranatidure aropitavrksasamudayaih, arama as the grove of trees planted on both sides of road outside a city: aramaih purad bahih rathyobhayaparsve ropitavrksasamudayaih. We have taken only a few of the synonyms in this paper by way of specimen. There are a lot more which can be given similar treatment. As a matter of fact, the material available is sufficient to fill a reasonably sized monograph. The divination of the distinction in meanings in well established synonyms has its own joy. This humble investigator has been prompted in presenting this paper to share this joy with the distinguished readers. REFERENCES 1. 1.4.37. 2. 2.6.123. 1

Sanskrit Synonyms 99 3. IV.13.12 4. 1.29.2. 5. VII.38.2. 6. X.60.9. 7. V.85.4. 8. I.1.4. 9. Astikaparvan, 43.10-11. 10. IV.16.24 11. 1.15.23 12. II.10.20 13. 1.6.28 14. VIII.8.8 15. Vanaparvan, 53.12 16. IV.1.55 17. This is not a conjecture. The word has been actually used in this sense in Mahabharata verse: prabhuh sankalpasiddho'smi kamarupi vihangamah (Udyogaparva, 193.4). Nilakantha n explains vigangamah as 'flying in' or 'moving through the sky': vihangama akasagami. 18. V.57.9. 19. V.57.28. 20. VII. 6. 61. 21. II.5.35. R 22. Udyogaparvan, 152.21 (Citrasala Press Edition). 23. Incidentally it would be interesting to mention the precise distinction between kopa and krodha. While kopa is an internal phenomenon: antaro dharmah, krodha is its outward manifestation in the form of distorted movement of limbs and ugly speech: vikrta-vakkaya-vyaparanumiyamanah or in the words of Nilakantha the condition of being distraught in mind: krodho viksiptacittata. 24. IV.10.4 25. Ramayana, V.62.33. 26. V. 9.18. 27. V. 25.6. 28. VII. 5.34. 29. VIII. 11.29. 30. V. 62.33. 31. This is the meaning of amarsa given by Nilakantha under the t CC-0. PMahabharata collection, New Delhi. Digitized by S 3 Foundation USA PMahabharata verse daksyam hy amarsah....., Vanaparvan, 29.20

100 # Grammar and Linguistics 32. VI.14.19 33. VI.31.4 34. These mantrins formed a smaller body, the Inner Body. It was with them that the king constantly conferred. In this character the mantrins mean those vested with mantra or the policy of state as is evident from the expressions mantradharas in the Ramayana (II. 100.60) and mantragrahas in the Mahabharata (XII, 83.50) K.P. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, 1955, p. 286. 35. In the light of these comments it appears strange as to how the learned K.P.Jayaswal permitted himself the remark that in the Ramayana amatya occurs in the general sense while sacivas are distinguished from the mantrins. K.P. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, 1955, p. 28. 36. Caraka Samhita, Adhyaya,146.40. 37. 1.48.3. 38. IV.60. 39. II.62.10. 40. VI.108.25. 41. V. 26.35. 42. VI. 16.5. 43. VI. 17.22. 44. Manusmrti IV. 179. 45. ibid 46. Ramayana, V. 53.4. 47. Adiparvan, 120.34. 48. VI. 16.3. 49. I. 11.13 50. IV. 25.16. 51. VI.121.25 52. II. 6.13. 53. Adiparvan, 126.4. 54. ibid., 110.30. 55. VI.111.35. 56. Rgveda, I.109.4. 58. ibid, II.32.4. 57. Ramayana, II.32.8. 59. ibid, VI.3.43. 60. Mahabharata, Udyogaparva 162.16. 61. III. 26.43. cm, l

Sanskrit Synonyms 101 62. Vanaparvan, 146.40. 63. Bhismaparvan, 5.17. 64. ibid, Vanaparvan, 155.55. 65. ibid, Udyogaparvan, 29.49. References from the Mahabharata unless otherwise indicated, are from the Critical Edn. from Poona while those from the Ramayana are from the Nirnaya Sagar Press edn., Bombay, 1909. 66. III. 10.19. 67. Udyogaparvan, 29.49. 68. IV.48.10 69. VI.16.5 70. I. 10.35. 71. Vanaparvan, 5.3. 72. Adiparvan, 175.5. 73. Carakasamhita, Vimanasthana, Chapter 4 74. V. 14.27. 75. VII. 15.43. 76. Udyogaparvan, 43.16. 77. Sabhaparvan, 5.40. 78. Udyogaparvan, 43.16. 79. ibid., 43.12. 80. V. 19.16. 81. III. 60.11. 82. IV.68. 83. Udyogaparvan, 89.6. 84. V.2.9. 85. Santiparvan, 192, Citrasala Press Edn., p.331. & 86. I. 9.20. 87. I. 15.4. 88. III. 4.9. 89. V. 10.25. 90. X. 81.36. 91. VI. 49.28. 92. Santiparvan, 174.28 93. V.27.35. 94. VI.34.9 95. I.5.14. 96. I. 11.12.