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Rudra the counterpart of Siva in the Rig-Veda. In the Rig-Veda, Rudra represents Siva, who is not mentioned by that name in it. Rudra and Vishnu, though eclipsed to some extent by Indra, are still invoked in a manner which signifies their importance among the gods of the period. Rudra is celebrated in a lesser number of hymns than Vishnu, but that does not by any means indicate that he occupied a position less important than Vishnu. In one hymn (I. 8. 8) he is praised as "the wise, the most bountiful and mighty Rudra, who is (cherished) in our hearts". A grateful hymn is sung in his honour to obtain gifts "to our cattle, our people, our cows, and our progeny". He is spoken of as "the encourager of hymns, the protector of sacrifices, possessor of medicaments

that confer delight." In another (I. 16. 9) he is spoken of 66 鈥� " the mighty Rudra, with the braided hair (Kapardin), the destroyer of heroes", and the Vedic singers offer their praises to him "in order that health may be enjoyed by bipeds and quadrupeds and that all beings in this village may be (well) nourished and exempt from disease". He is asked to grant happiness and "freedom from disease and exemption from dangers". He is praised as the accomplisher of sacrifices, the tortuous, the wise"; he is asked to remove far from them "his celestial wrath", for, they say, "they earnestly solicit his favour". They invoke him with reverence, as he "who has excellent food, who is radiant, and has braided hair (Kapardin), who is brilliant and is to be ascertained (by sacred study), holding in his hands excellent medicaments" and they pray to him to grant them "health, defensive armour, and a (secure) dwelling". They speak of him as "the father of the Maruts" and they pray: "Injure not, Rudra, those amongst us who are old or young, who are capable of begetting, or who are begotten, nor a father, nor a mother, nor afflict our precious persons. Again, they pray: Harm us not Rudra, in our sons or grandsons, or other male descendants, nor in our cattle, nor in our horses; inflamed with anger, kill not our valiant men, for we, presenting clarified butter, perpetually invoke thee." And they add: "Father of the Maruts, bestow happiness . .; thy auspicious benignity is the cause of successive delight, therefore we especially solicit thy protection." The double aspect of Siva-fierceness and benignity-is here significantly brought out. His universal supremacy is next expressed thus: Destroyer of heroes, may thus cow-killing or man-slaying (weapon) be far away and let the felicity granted by thee be ours; favour us; speak, brilliant hero, in our behalf, and grant us-thou art mighty over the two (realms of heaven and earth)-prosperity." The idea re-appears in another hymn (II. 4. 1), in which Rudra is spoken of as "the chiefest of beings in glory", as "the wielder of the thunderbolt, "the mightiest of the $ " " "

" 843 mighty" and is asked to "waft" the singers "in safety over (the ocean) of sin" and to repel all the assaults of iniquity ". He is later spoken of in even higher terms. "(Firm) with strong limbs, assuming many forms, fierce and tawny-coloured, he shines with brilliant golden ornaments: vigour is inseparable from Rudra, the supreme ruler and lord of the world." He is not to be provoked to wrath by imperfect adorations; he is the invigorator of sons by his medicinal plants; he is a chief physician among physicians; he is to be pacified by praises; worshipped with invocations and oblations; is reverently invoked; is softbellied; of a tawny hue, and handsome chin; is the showerer of benefits; lord of the Maruts; supplier of invigorating food; the healer and delighter (of all); the dispeller of the sins. of the gods; the white-complexioned; the consumer (of sin); who is glorified in the illustrious name of Rudra; the bearer of arrows and a bow; the wearer of an adorable and omniform necklace; the preserver of all this vast universe; there is no one more powerful than he; his javelin should be avoided; he is the giver of much (wealth), the protector of the virtuous; he is the cherisher of the world, the showerer (of benefits), omnicisent and divine (Rudra), etc. (II. 4. 1-15). 1185 In another hymn, the universal character of Rudra is even more strikingly brought out. In it, he is spoken of as "the divine Rudra, armed with the strong bow and fast-flying arrows, the bestower of food, the invincible, the conqueror, the creator, the wielder of sharp weapons" ;1186 we are told "he is known by his rule over those of terrestrial birth, by his sovereignty over those of celestial (origin)". His are a thousand medicaments (VII. 3. 13).' 1187 1185 The epithets "tawny-coloured" and "white-complexioned " both appear as descriptions of Rudra in the Rig-Vida (II. 4. 5 and 8). 1186 His sharp weapons are referred to again and again. See Rig Veda, VIII. 4. 9, where he is referred to as holding his sharp weapons in his hand. 1187 As to Wilson, he sees little of the Rudra of the Puranas in the Rudra of the Rig-Veda, except his fierceness. As to his identification with Siva, Wilson holds that except kapardin no other

Identification of Rudra with Siva. There has been some discussion as to the identity of Rudra, the Vedic god. According to Sayana, there is hardly any doubt that he is to be understood as Siva. At any rate, the Hindu commentators so understood him. Sayana defines the name Rudra to mean "he who makes to weep, who causes all to weep at the end of time", thus identifying him with the destroying principle, or Siva. Wilson suggests that "there is nothing in the hymn (I. 8. 8) to bear out such an identification". On the contrary, he says, " he appears as a beneficent deity presiding especially over medicinal plants". Though this be so there, the Vedic singers show fully well that they are afraid of him; pray to him to remove them far from his celestial wrath and beg of him not to injure them or their cattle or horses. There is an open avowal of his destroying nature in the hymns quoted above, though there is an equally frank declaration as to his capacity to keep them free from disease. His fierceness and his benignity are both acknowledged and it is thus his identity with Siva is established. The reference to him as indicative of his identity Rudriya is Rudra samthe holder of medicaments is also with Siva. According to Sayana, bandhi bheshajam-medicament in relation to or presided over by Rudra, conformably to the text Ya te Rudra Shiva tanuh, Shiva Vishwah, bheshaji Shiva, Rudrasya bheshajiti,-whatever are thy auspicious forms, O Rudra, they are all auspicious; auspicious are medicaments, the medicaments of Rudra. In I. 16. 9, Rudra is styled Kapardin, he with the braided hair. Kaparda indicates the jata of Siva, for which reason Sayana gives as its equivalent jatilaya. Even Wilson has to concede that "this looks very like a recognition of Siva in the person of Rudra". Rudra is, in II. 4. 1, spoken as the "white-complexioned", shwitiche shwaityam anchate, he who goes to or obtains whiteness. This epithet applicable to Siva occurs in the Rig-Veda. On the other hand, Macdonell speaks of Rudra of the Rig-Vida as "the earlier form of Siva". (See Wilson, Rig-Veda, Introduction; Macdonell, Sanskrit Literature, 74).

refers to the white complexion of Siva, which evidently has its origin in this hymn. Later Western scholars-those who came after Wilson-assert that Rudra in the Rig-Veda, is the earlier form of Siva. 1188 In the Rig-Veda, the term Siva (meaning auspicious) is only used as an adjective in the sense of bringing good fortune, being gracious. It has even been suggested that it is used (in the Rig-Veda) euphemistically. There is no doubt that it is commonly so used in the later Vedas, and became his exclusive name in post-Vedic times. The transition is well marked in the period of the Yajur-Veda. Siva in the Yajur-Veda. In the 16 th chapter of the Vajasaneyi Samhita of the Sukla Yajur Veda, god Rudra is spoken of by a large number of epithets which, later, are peculiar to Siva. To these, in the 39 th chapter, are added Isana (Ruler) and Mahadeva (Supreme God), which perhaps indicate the final conversion of Rudra into Siva. Evidently, in the special worship of Rudra, he was already reckoned the Great God and the Ruler of all. Accordingly, we would not be far wrong if we assumed that, in the period of the Sukla Yajur-Veda, the Rudra of the Rig-Veda, has become Siva, he being several times mentioned by the latter name as well as by other epithets peculiar to him, such as Sankara, Mahadeva, etc. Siva in the Brahmanas and the Atharva-Veda. In the first part of the Gopatha Brahmana attached to the Atharva-Veda, we find mention of Siva, which would seem to show that in post-Vedic times, if not already in the Brahmana period (800-500 B.C.), Siva had become fully established in place of Rudra. Indeed, in the AtharvaVeda, 1189 Rudra is elevated to a higher position. Many other names are given to him, though the bearer of these different ' 1188 Taittiriya Samhita, 4. 5. 1; Vajasaneya Samhita, 16. The name Siva occurs at the end of the Satarudriya. 1189 Atharva-Veda, IV. 28. 1; VI. 93. 2; VII. X. 1. 3 ; XI. 2. 7; XI. 2. 4; XI. 2. 9; XI, 2, 10; 6.9; XIII. 4. 4; XIII. 4. 28; XV. 5. 1-7. 87. 1 ; IX. 7.7 XI. 2. 28 ; XI. ;

names is addressed individually and as a separate God. Among the more prominent names are Bhava, Sarva, Bhutapati, Pasupati, Mahadeva, Ugra, Isana, etc. A study of these names shows that the double character of Rudradestructive and beneficent-is still maintained. In the Satapatha Brahmana and the Kausitaki Brahmana, we see that the Atharva-Veda position is still undisturbed and the names given to Rudra continue the tradition of his creative and destructive characters. 1190 In the Grihya Sutras, however, the fearful side of Rudra is stressed (Asvalayana Grihya Sutra, IV. 9; Paraskara Grihya Sutra, III. 8; III. 15). In the Mahabharata. There are numerous references to Siva in the Mahabharata. The duality of his nature is to be seen in this epic as well. He is commonly styled Mahadeva or the Great God and Devadeva, the God of Gods, in it. He is spoken of as the son of Brahma, sprung from his forehead, hence called Lalataprabhava.1191 His abode is the Himavat. He is also called Pasupati and is described as rejoicing in the company of Uma. 110 He has three eyes, hence called Trinetra. 1193 He has a blue neck, and is therefore called Nilakantha¹194, Srikantha 1195 and Sitikantha. 1196 He has ten arms. He is clothed in skins, especially in tiger skins. 1198 His vehicle is the Vrishabha.1199 His weapon is the fearful 1197 1190 Atharva-Veda, VI. 1. 3-7; VI. 1. 9. 1191 Mahabharata, XII. 13705, 13723. According to another version, he sprang from Vishnu's forehead, Ibid., III. 1192 Ibid., VI. 218: XIII. 6339. 1193 Ibid., III. 11984, XII. 10357. How he got this third eye For another version of the story is detailed in Ibid., III. 6362. see Ibid., XII. 13205. 1194 Ibid., II. 1641; XIII. 843, 1154. 1195 1196 Ibid., XII. 13705. Ibid., X. 253. 1197 Ibid., XIII. 1154. 1108 Ibid., II. 1643; X. 256. 1199 Ibid., II. 415.

, 847 His Pasupata, with which he killed the daityas in battle.1200 battle-axe is the Parasu. 1201 His bow is the Pinaka:1202 hence he is styled Pinakin. 1203 His trident is called Trisula 120 after which he is called the Sulin. 1205 His wife is called Uma, 1200 who is also called Parvati 1207 and Gauri. 1208 Kubera is his friend. 1209 Thus, though he has many names and shapes, he is not infrequently made the foremost of all the divinities. Thus he is made out to be Brahma himself in certain places. 1210 1210 He has a thousand names and forms, sahasranama and bahurupa, all of which are classified under the terrible or the mild. 1911 In the terrible form, he appears mostly as Rudra, his Rig-Vedic name; 1212 as Hara he is spoken as the destroyer of the universe; 1213 he is unborn ;1214 he is the maker of the world; 1215 he absorbs, at the destruction of the world, all things created; 1216 he draws in the whole universe at the end of a yuga and swallows up all things; 1217 everything owes its origin to him; 1918 he is the Mighty Ruler of the world and as such is called Isana, the Ruler; Isvara, the Lord; Mahesvara, the Great Lord; Visvesvara, 1200 Ibid., III. 11985, VII. 2838; XIII. 851. 1201 Ibid., XIII. 864. 1202 Ibid., XIII. 849, 6396. 1203 Ibid., XIII. 567, 7090. 1204 Ibid., XIII. 860. 1205 Ibid., III. 1642. 1200 Ibid., XII. 12169. 1207 Ibid., XII. 13220. 1208 1209 Ibid., X. 258. Ibid., II. 417; XII. 10362. 1210 Ibid., XIII. 7496, 880, 1144; XII. 10346 in all of which passages he is made the foremost of all; in XIII. 1043, 590 and 704 he is made out to be Brahma himself. 1211 Ibid., XIII. 7504-7510; see also VII, 9599. 1212 Ibid., II. 1642; X. 252; XII. 10375; XII. 10370. 1213 Ibid., XIII. 1146; X. 249; XIII. 7497; XII. 2791. 1214 Ibid., X. 253. 1215 Ibid., III. 1626. 1216 Ibid., IX. 2236. 1217 Ibid., XIII. 941-943. 1218 Ibid., VII. 9465.

Lord of all; Sthanu, the Immovable, etc. 1219 He is also Kala as destroyer and as such creates all and sweeps away everything again and again. 1220 He is the beginning of the world and the absorber of the world.1221 As Siva and Sankara, he is the merciful Sarvabhuta sivah sivah, he, who is friendly towards all; 1222 Saumya vaktradhara, he who has a mild countenance; 1223 Sarvabhutahite ratah, he who rejoices over the happiness of all beings. 1224 Among the heroic deeds of Siva, the most prominent, perhaps, are the following: the receiving of the heavenly Ganga on his head; 1225 the destruction of Daksha's sacrifice; 1220 reducing to ashes Kama; 1227 the killing of Bhaga; 1228 the overthrowing of the Asura Andhaka; 1229 and the burning of the three fortresses, Tripura.1230 Among his famous gifts are the following:the grant of the spear Pasupata to Arjuna; 1201 the gift of a sword to Aswathaman (Sauptika Parva, Chapter VII); the grant of eight boons to Krishna and eight more to Jambavati, Krishna's wife; and the gifts to Upamanyu.1231 These two latter are mentioned in the Anusasana Parva (Chapter XIV). Puranas about Siva and Vishnu. In the Mahabharata are also to be found a number of Puranas whose object is to favour the worship of Siva in 1219 Ibid., VII. 2876; VIII. 436; X. 252; XII. 4498: X. 252; V. 3825; XII. 10292; III. 7042; VII. 9625; X. 252; XIII. 843. 1220 Ibid., XIII. 7497, 1161, 1188, 942; XII. 5718, 1175; XIII. 56. 1221 Ibid., XIII. 918; VI. 1278; XIII. 53. 1222 Ibid., VII. 9622; VIII. 436. 1223 Ibid., VIII. 869. 1224 Ibid., XII. 5739. 1225 Ibid., VI. 223; XIII. 1784; XIII. 1856. 1226 Ibid., X. 786; VII. 9545; XII. 10272; XIX. 12212; III. 1627; X. 253; XIII. 6468. 1227 Ibid., XII. 6975-6980. 1228 Ibid., VII. 9538; XIII. 7475. 1229 Ibid., VII. 2876, 9462; XII. 10357; XIII. 908. 1230 Ibid., III. 14569; VII. 9555; XIII. 7482. 1231 Ibid., III. 11985; VII. 2838; XIII. 851.

some cases and of Vishnu, in others. This Epic also contains enumerations of the thousand names of Siva and of Vishnu. Among the Puranas which favour the religion of Siva are the Skanda, the Siva, the Linga and the Bhavishya. The Markandeya and the Padma Puranas inculcate the belief that Brahma, Vishnu and Siva are only one being. This doctrine is found already prominently, mentioned in the Harivamsa. This tradition of a common origin is seen in the Vishnu Purana as well, where Siva is the God who springs from the forehead of Brahma, who separates into male and female. The old Rig-Vedic idea of his being the parent of the Rudras, or Maruts, half of whom are gentle and brilliant, and the others ferocious and black, is also to be traced in this Purana. Siva in the Svetasvatara Upanishad. In the Svetasvatara Upanishad, Siva has not yet become the name of Rudra, though its frequent use as an adjective in connection with the latter indicates that it is in course of becoming fixed as the proper name of the highest God. In this Upanishad, Rudra's supremacy is fully maintained, though the bhakti aspect is stressed in the most vigorous fashion. 1232 Knowing Siva one is free-we are told _ from all nooses (Sveta. Upa., 16). When there was nothing but darkness, Siva alone existed (Ibid., 18). This Upanishad, it is worthy of note, ends with a prayer of two verses addressed to Rudra to protect, of which one is taken from the Rig-Veda (I. 114. 8). The Supreme Brahman is often identified in this Upanishad with Rudra, Siva, Isana and Mahesvara. Uma is mentioned in the Kena Upanishad, but though she is not identified as the wife of Rudra, there is the suggestion in it that she had come to be so regarded before that Upanishad came into existence. In this, as in other Atharva-Veda Upanishads, the Saiva or 1232 Svetasvatara Upa., 1-20. This Upanishad quotes verses from the Satarudriya, the Bhagavad-gita, and the Purushasukta. The names given to Rudra are: Isana, Isa, Siva and Bhagavat. 54

Sakta aspect is stressed. In the Suryopanishad, the earliest phase of the Sakta school is seen. In the Atharvasiras, Rudra becomes the Brahman, while the importance of the Bhasma (the sacred ash) is urged as the mode of salvation. In the Sarabhopanishad, the superiority of Rudra is indicated by explaining how Rudra, incarnating himself as Sarabha, destroyed the Man-Lion incarnation of Vishnu. It concludes by identifying Siva with the Supreme Brahman. The Bhasmajabala Upanishad deals with Bhasma, Rudraksha, the worship of the linga, etc., all intended to indicate the greatness of Siva. The Akshamalika Upanishad extols the Japamala; the Kalagni-Rudropanishad speaks of the importance of the Bhasma (sacred ash); while the Rudrakshijabala refers to the greatness of Pasupati and the virtues attaching to the Rudraksha, Bhasma etc. The Brihad Jaabala and Bhasma Jabalopanishad likewise deal with the sacred ash and the Rudraksha. The Pasupatabrahmopanishad makes Pasupati (Siva) the Supreme Brahman. Every phase of Vedantic thought is sought to be covered by this Upanishad. In the Paippaladopanishad, Brahma is represented as teaching Pippalada that Rudra is the Supreme Brahman. In the Atharva-Veda Upanishads, the identification of Rudra and the description of Siva as the Absolute is complete. Siva in the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad. In the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, this Rig-Veda conception still persists. The Rudras, the progeny of Rudra, are called the ten vital breaths (pranas) with the heart as the eleventh, which seems opposed to the description of Siva as the destroyer of life. The double conception of creator and destroyer seems maintained here. In the Bhagavad-Gita. In the Bhagavad-gita, the supremacy of Siva as the ruler of the world is maintained. 1233 Referring to the Rudras, Sri 1233 See K. T. Telang, Bhagavad-gita, in the Sacred Books of the East , VIII. 219, 347.

Krishna identifies himself with Sankara, which would seem to stress the aspect of beneficence associated with him. 1234