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The word 'bhumi,' common to both Pali and Sanskrit, literally means 'ground', 'soil', or 'earth', etc., but figuratively it is employed in the sense of 'stage, level, place, or state of physical or mental existence.' Though the word in its literal sense is commonly found in the Pali Nikayas, its use in its figurative sense is not so common. Such instance of its figurative use is found in the Vinaya Pitaka:- 'Atha kho yasassa kulaputtassa pituno dhamme desiyamane 35 N. Dutt, Cultural Heritage of India vol. I, p.512. cf. S.R. Goyal, A History of Indian Buddhism p. 228.

15 yathadittham yathaviditam bhumim paccavekkhantassa anupadaya asavehi cittam vimucci." , 36 Besides such rare usage, the term is not used in the Nikayas to mean a spiritual plane. Hence, the spiritual path as consisting of different 'bhumis' in a figurative sense appears to be a sectarian development. Evidently, it is not purely a Mahayanic concept, for its earliest occurrence appears in the Mahavastu, a text belonging to the Lokottaravada sect of the Mahasanghika. However, it is not quite certain whether this concept of 'bhumi' belongs to the original form of the Mahavstu. It is also referred to in the Abhidharmakosa, a text of The Satasahasrika-Prajnaparamita which reflects the Saravastivadins. a stage of transition from Theravada to Mahayana also makes the reference to 'bhumi' concept. All these suggest that this concept belongs to post-early Buddhism and pre-Mahayana period, more precisely to the period of Sectarian Buddhism. One of the causes that led to divisions in the order of Sangha is the anti-sravaka or anti-Arahant attitude that was adopted by a section of monks, the Mahasanghikas. Therefore, it is natural to see this new group putting forward novel paths and ideals, and holding the concept of 'bhumi' as a superior path to that which was followed by the orthodox Theravadins. As this new doctrine along with the Bodhisattva ideal 36 VP. I, 17.

16 became popular among some of the Theravadins, this concept has been adopted to suit their own goals. This However, it is in the texts more prone to Mahayana, that it rapidly developed. The Prajnaparamita texts, though devoting a chapter exclusively to the treatment of the bhumis, 37 state that from the standpoint of the highest truth this concept is merely a matter of convention. shows that even by the time of Prajnaparamitas this bhumi doctrine had not become developed enough as to make it an essential and integral part of the Bodhisattva doctrine. Even certain subsequent Mahayana texts such as Bodhicaryavatara, Siksasamuccaya do not pay much attention to it. Thus, it may be said that the 'bhumi' doctrine did not form essential feature in the spiritual path of a Bodhisattva, unlike the stages in the spiritual path of Theravadins. The Such a conclusion is strengthened by the fact that there is no uniformity in number, names, or the content of bhumis. Dasabhumika-Sutra which is the most authoritative work on the subject of bhumi accepted by the Mahayanists, fix the bhumis as ten in number. But the Bodhisattvabhumi formally discusses only seven bhumis and thirteen Viharas; the latter are included in the former. 39 The 37 SaP. chapter X. 38 Encyclopaedia of Buddhism p.80. 39 Bodhisattvabhumi p.367.

17 Lankavastarasutra speaks of seven bhumis 40 without specifying them. The Mahavastu, though it refers to ten bhumis, describes only seven. Even the Dasabhumika-Sutra reveals that the scheme of seven is the original one; the Bodhisattva can pass away in Nirvana in the seventh bhumi, if he so desires, but he follows the higher ideal of the Mahayana, which is especially realized in the 8 th, 9 th, and 10 th bhumis. 41 The names of bhumis in other texts are different from those occurring in the Dasabhumika-Sutra. The bases on which the scheme is founded are also different; therefore, it is not an integral part of the original Mahayana Scheme of Liberation, but a development that took place gradually. With the gradual evolution of the Bodhisattva concept, obviously it must have become necessary to lay out the scheme for a Bodhisattva, who has to follow it to reach Buddhahood. The Mahavastu contains the early tradition of bhumis which very probably was evolved after being based on the Theravada Scheme leading to Nibbana. Thus, though it refers to ten bhumis its real focus is on seven bhumis running somewhat parallel to the Theravada Scheme. This scheme got systematized and fixed out after the compilation of the Dasabhumika-Sutra which, therefore, undoubtedly is the most authoritative treatise on the subject. 40 Lankavatara-Sutra (ed.) in A Catalogue of the Chinese Translation of the Buddhist Tripitaka p.28. 41 Har Dayal, The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature p.27.

18 It is seen that the Buddha held the view that final knowledge could not be had at the beginning of the practice itself. Thus, in the Majjhimanikaya the Buddha very clearly declares that:- "Do not say that one can win the emancipatory knowledge at the very beginning, it is to be obtained through a gradual a gradual training, gradual action, and gradual clear. "42 practice. The content of the Enlightenment (bodhi) as well as the effort of the Bodhisattva to realize Enlightenment make this point very Therefore, Theravada, from very early times, speaks of the Path which leads an aspirant gradually in a four-levelled hierarchical scheme. It also speaks of a preparatory stage which is very necessary for one to enter into the scheme. In Theravada Buddhism, broadly speaking, the Buddhist community was basically divided into two categories: the Puthujjana and Savaka. The Puthujjanas are said to be unlearned or not conversant with the Dhamma, in the religious sense. The Puthujjana is defined, in stereotyped phrase that is used to describe, as follows:- "ariyanam adassavi ariyadhammassa akovido ariyadhamme avinito sappurisanam adassavi sappurisadhammassa akovido sappurisadhamme avinito." 42 Majjhima Nikaya I, 479, 480: naham adiken'eva annaradhanam vadami api ca anupubbasikkha anupubbakiriya anupubbapatipada annaradhana hoti. 43 Majjhima Nikaya I, 7; Samyuttanikaya III, 16, 42, 46, etc.

19 This means that a puthujjana is one who is unable to discern a noble being, not conversant in the noble teaching, not disciplined the noble teaching, not discerning a good that is a 'holy' being, not conversant with the ways of noble beings, and not disciplined in the ways 44 of the noble beings. The Puggala Pannatti simply says that a puthujjana is one who has neither got rid of the three samyojanas nor applied himself to get rid of them. Theravada The Ariyasavaka 45 (noble disciple) who has set himself on the Path, is contrasted with such an ordinary worldling. The texts also speak of a transitory stage between Puthujjana and Ariyasavaka. Buddhism refers to this stage as Gotrabhu. The term occurs in such suttas as the Dakkhinavibhanga of the Majjhima-nikaya and in two 47 46 other suttas of the Anguttara-nikaya. This term, therefore, does not seem to belong to the early part of the Nikayas, for therein such minute and subtle divisions of the spiritual path were non-existent. It is said in the Puggala Pannatti, 48 (a late work belonging to the Abhidhamma 44 Puggala-Pannatti p. 12. 45 Majjhima Nikaya I, p. 8, p.300; Samyuttanikaya III, p. 17, etc. 46 Majjhima Nikaya III, p.256. 47 Samyuttanikaya IV, p.373; V, p.23. 48 Abhip. p. 126.

20 Pitaka), that a puthujjana by developing noble qualities becomes a Gotrabhu, and qualifies himself to enter the scheme leading to Nibbana. Anguttara-nikaya includes Gotrabhu among the nine persons worthy of respect, 49 the other eight being the eight persons who are at different stages of development in the Path. 50 The same is referred to as Gotra-bhumi in Buddhist Sanskrit books. This is listed among the seven stages, sometimes eight or ten, of spiritual development of a Sravakayanist. The Mahavyutpatti gives the seven Gotrabhumi, Astamakabhumi, stages Suklavidarsanabhumi, as Darsanabhumi, Tanubhumi, Vitaragabhumi, Krtavinbhumi. Herein the first two bhumis are considered as pre-Sotapanna, and are the transitory stages between Puthujjana and Ariyasavaka. The same bhumis are mentioned in the Satasahasrika-Prajnaparamita with the addition of the Pratyekabuddhabhumi, Bodhisattvabhumi and Buddhabhumi. This was another attempt at expanding the Theravada scheme to fall in line with the Mahayana teaching. The Nikayas mention numerous qualities that are to be cultivated for one to qualify to enter into the Path. A basic requirement for this is 49 Anguttara-Nikaya IV, p.373. 50 For details, see Encyclopaedia of Buddhism V, p.380 f.

21 faith (pasada) in the Buddha, Dhamma and the Sangha.St An Ariyan disciple should be endowed with this; should commence to follow the Noble Eight-fold Path; and should acquire six conditions which constituent parts of knowledge. 52 This preparatory stage finds its parallel in the Mahayana Scheme. The Mahayana divides this initial preparatory stage into two namely, Prakrticarya and Pranidhanacarya. The Bodhisattvabhumi also mentions this pre-stage and calls it Prakrticarya and further sub-divides it The stage into two stages as Gotra vihara and Adhimukticarya vihara. next to Puttujjana is Gotrabhu corresponding in some respects to the Gotravihara in the Bodhisattvabhumi. The Dasabhumika-Sutra 53 without naming this stage, describes Puthujjana (prthagjnana) in detail. Both Puthujjana and Gotrabhu states seem to be preparatory stages the latter being more advanced than the former. In Mahayana there is reference to various other qualities that a Bodhisattva is required to develop. It cannot be said with any certainty as to whether it is the Theravadins or some other sect that first developed the concept of that 51 Digha Nikaya III, p.227; Samyuttanikaya V. p.196; Pts.M. p.161: There is a formula for announcing the faith. Such faith is called Saddhindriya. 52 Samyuttanikaya II, p.69; V, p.342 ff. 53 Dasabhumika-Sutra p.8. Yena cittotpadena sahotpannena bodhisattva'tikranto bhavati, prthagjnanabhumimavakranto bhavati.

22 preparatory stage. It is quite reasonable to accept the view that it belongs to a comparatively later period, for it is not found mentioned in the early scheme referred to in Suttas such as Brahmajala and Samannaphala Suttas of the Digha-nikaya which belongs to the early stage of the Nikayas. The Scheme proper in Theravada Buddhism consists of four stages namely, Sotapanna, Sakadagami, Anagami and Arahant. These four stages are, however, further subdivided according to the Eight Noble Beings: the four in the supramundane Paths and the other four in the supramundane fruitions of those Paths. After the acquisition of the preliminary requirements, while being in the Gotrabhu stage that one enters into the Path of Stream-Entrant (Sotapatti-magga), gets rid of three fetters (samyojanas) which keeps one found to Samsaric existence. These fetters are â‘ Personality-view (sakkaya-ditthi), Skeptical doubt (Vicikiccha), and â‘¢Attachment to rites and rituals (Silabbata paramasa). When, thus accomplished, he is qualified to follow the Path of OnceReturning (Sakadagami) and becomes free of two more fetters namely, â‘ Sensuous craving (kamacchanda), and Ill-will (vyapada). These first five fetters are called the lower fetters (Orambhagiya samyojanas). However, it has to be noted that by realizing the two stages one cannot completely eradicate these lower fetters. It is only through following the Path of Non-Returning (Anagami) that these five lower fetters become totally extinguished.

23 There are five more fetters to be destroyed. They are called Uddambhagiya Samyojanas and these are ①Craving for material existence (ruparaga), 2 Craving for immaterial existence (aruparaga), � Conceit (mana), Restlessness (Uddhacca), and � Ignorance (avijja). Each of these stages is further classified. Thus, a Sotapanna who is in the lowest stage of the scheme is divided into three categories. They are having seven births at the most (Sattakkhathuparama), passing from one noble family to another (kolankola) and germinating only once (eka-bija). The Theravada tradition speaks also of five classes of non-retruners (anagami). The Mahayana 'Bhumi' scheme completely disregards all these divisions. As shown above the main aim of the Mahayana scheme is to prove that it is far superior to that of the Tharavada scheme. Hence, at the earlier stage, that is when a a transition was taking place from Theravada to Mahayana, the Theravada scheme was adopted as a preliminary stage and the Mahayana scheme developed from where Theravada scheme ended. It is generally accepted that the preliminary pre-sotapanna stage finds a parallel in the pre-bhumi stage of the Mahayana scheme. The scholars, however, seem to think that there is no similarity between the Sotapanna stage and the First Bhumi. N. Dutt says "The Hinayana system does not offer any parallel to the first bhumi of the Mahayanists, for it has no concern with Bodhicitta, Pranidhana, Maitri, Karuna and

24 the ten qualities needed by a Bodhisattva for fortifying himself to proceed along the ten bhumis. "54 Perhaps following N. Dutt, A.C. Banerjee and S.K. Nanayakkara say "As the Theravada Scheme is not concerned with any of the attainments, there is in it no particular stage that could be considered as identical with the first bhumi. Of these two writers, 5 55 56 the former says that there is 'no parallel to the first bhumi' and the latter c says that there is no stage identical with the first bhumi.' and identity are widely different in connotation. Sotapanna stage and the first bhumi are not identical. Parallelness It is true that the There is nothing wrong in it, for there is no reason why these two stages should be identical. It is not the identity that we should attempt to see in two different schemes, but the similarity if there is any between them. So, to say that there is no parallelism is not totally unacceptable. The Sotapanna stage, it should be remembered, is the first stage in the Path, the earlier stages being more preparatory stages, equipping the devotee with necessary personal and spiritual factors to break away from the gravitational pull of Puthujjana state. The Sotapanna state, therefore, represents the initial break away, departure from the normal worldly courses, the 'anusotagami' way of life which draws one down-stream, 54 N. Dutt, Mahayana Buddhism p. 109. 55 56 Encyclopaedia of Buddhism vol. III, p.79. pp. 74-81. ibid. pp.

25 subjecting him to an endless vortex of birth and death. Yet, he is the lowest of the eight noble beings (ariya-puggala). He arrives at this stage by getting rid of the personality-belief (sakkaya-ditthi), skeptical doubt (vicikiccha) and attachment to rites and rituals (silabbata-paramasa). The main characteristics of a Sotapanna are: his unshakable faith toward Buddha, Dhamma, Sangha, and perfect morality. He is endowed with long-life, good complexion, happiness, and is described as being glorious and wealthy. He is excluded from being born in any of the bad states of existence (avinipatadhammo), and above all he is certainly destined to become enlightened (niyatasambodhiparayano). Though it is not possible to 'identify' many of these qualities in a Bodhisattva presented in similar term in the Dasabhumika-Sutra or in any other Mahayana work dealing with the Bodhisattva conduct, one cannot fail to see some similarities between them. Just as the Sotapanna, the first bhumi named Pramudita denotes an initial stage in the long spiritual career of a Bodhisattva. It is clear that a Bodhisattva arrives at this stage just after the production of the 'bodhicitta.' This annihilates all his previous sins and takes him above the worldly level. He becomes freed from birth in any evil state of existence. Though there is no mention of the production of Bodhicitta in the Theravada Scheme (and the reasons for this are obvious) it is accepted that one cannot break away from the normal worldly course of life unless one makes a firm resolution with conviction, that one should

'break away. 26 Once one becomes a Sotapanna he devotes all his life to spiritual cultivation performing deeds which are wholesome, just as a Bodhisattva, in the first bhumi does, for both there is no turning back; a Sotapanna is definitely progressing towards Arahantship and a Bodhisattva towards the 10 th bhumi or Buddhahood. The qualities a Bodhisattva cultivates while in this bhumi are listed according to the accepted beliefs found in the Mahayana Scheme. Though not so elaborately listed, a Sotapanna is also expected to devote himself ardently to the cultivation of wholesome deeds. His faith in the Buddha, Dhamma, and Sangha and his interest in developing morality are equally shared by a Bodhisattva in the first bhumi. This clearly shows that the Pramudita bhumi is a very initial stage of spiritual development like the Sotapatti stage. Thus it is seen that there are enough similarities of the two stages as initial steps in the spiritual path. However, they are not identical, for it is hardly possible for them to be identical as they are based on two different schemes. There is consensus of opinion that a close resemblance of the two schemes is noticeable from the second stage. The Encyclopaedia of Buddhism says that, "Basically, the second bhumi, vimala, mentioned in the DasabhumikaSutra list is similar to the Sotapanna and Sakadagami stages. Both lay stress on the development and perfection of higher ethical conduct N. Dutt is also of the same opinion; for he, after summarizing the contents of this bhumi, observes, "This account of the (adhisila)."

27 second bhumi leaves us in little doubt as to its similarity to the adhisila practices of the Hinayanists, without, of course, taking into account the adhyasayas developed by the Bodhisattvas."57 What is clear from these observations is that even this stage is not Whatever is the school of very far away from the preliminary stage. Buddhism, whether it is Hinayana or Mahayana, they all agree that Sila is the foundation of Samadhi and Panna. Both schemes agree on principle that the Path is graduated and that sila enhances samadhi, and samadhi in turn enhances panna. As both schools of Buddhism accept this graduated spiritual course, it is not surprising to see the few initial stages in both schemes specifically emphasizing the perfection of Sila. It is also said that the third bhumi, Prabhakari, corresponds to the Anagami stage. In this stage the practice of dhyana, attainment of samapattis, and the cultivations of brahmaviharas are undertaken. Perhaps, this bhumi is compared to Anagami stage because the practices undertaken in it are more advanced and profound than those undertaken in the earlier two bhumis and that he is now getting closer to the realization of truth, for it is said that 'a Bodhisattva is this bhumi gains the most penetrating insight into the insight into the nature of things.' According to to the Theravada tradition one who is in the Sakadagami stage becomes nearly free from sensuous craving (kamacchanda or kamaraga) and ill-will 57 N. Dutt, Mahayana Buddhism p.112.

28 (vyapada or dosa). The next stage, that is Anagami, is differentiated from Sakadagami because in the Anagami state all five fetters get Thus, it is seen that Anagami comes closer to completely destroyed. third bhumi, as the Bodhisattva in this bhumi is fast coming closer to the realization of the truth. The next three bhumis (Arcismati, Sudurjaya and Abhimukhi) are involved with the further cultivation of wisdom, i.e., Adhiprajna. Thus, it is seen that in the initial stage it was sila that was emphasized, followed by the development of samadhi, and then comes the cultivation of prajna. These bhumis include the adhiprajnavihara and indicate the Bodhisattva's cultivation of wisdom. The final stage in the Theravada Scheme is the attainment of Arahanthood and this is reached by the perfection of wisdom. The parallelism ends here; for the Theravada Scheme reaches its climax with the realization of Arahanthood. This is the same state as attained by a Bodhsiattva after reaching the 6 th bhumi. As pointed out before, the early Mahayana Scheme, too, may have ended at this point. The Dasabhumika-Sutra in one instance mentions only six bhumis supporting the view that the early Mahayana scheme of spiritual culture climaxed with the realization of the 6 th bhumi. The Dasabhumika-Sutra very strongly supports this conclusion. There are statements in the Dasabhumika-Sutra which clearly suggest

29 that there is a deliberate attempt in it to expand the number of bhumis from six to ten. The Dasabhumika-Sutra very clearly says that a Bodhisattva practises all the Paramitas in this 6 th stage. Further it says It is very that a Bodhisattva in the 7 th stage can pass away into Nirvana. clearly stated that all the activities of this Bodhisattva in the remaining stages take place spontaneously, meaning that he had already accomplished what is to be accomplished, that is, reached the goal. The basis on which the Scheme of bhumis is evolved is also a matter of contention. It is said while the Bodhisattvabhumi is based on Nirnimitta-bhavana, the Dasabhumika-Sutra is based on the Paramitas. What exactly is the rationale behind this observation is not clear. Such an assumption suggests that there are different schemes. Really, the scheme is one, a graduated one, based on the Sila, Samadhi and Prajna (Panna) training, and it is the same both in Hinayana and Mahayana. All other factors are fixed into this broad scheme. When it is said that the Dasabhumika-Sutra is based on the Paramitas it gives the impression that the Dasabhumika-Sutra adopts a completely different scheme based on the Paramitas. of salvation based on the Paramitas. There is no scheme The Paramitas are mere factors in a broader scheme based on the threefold scheme of training (trisiksa) namely, Sila, Samadhi and Prajna. The Dasabhumika-Sutra did not extend its scheme to ten bhumis and fixed the number of bhumi at ten,

30 because it based its scheme on the ten Paramitas. It is far more reasonable to assume that when the bhumis were extended to ten, the Paramitas too were increased, and each bhumi was allocated a Paramita. The real reason for extending the scheme of bhumis from six to ten has to be sought elsewhere. The scheme of bhumis tallied with the Theravada scheme, though in contents of the practices performed in the four stages in the Theravada scheme and six bhumis in the Mahayana, they differed. This parallelism in the two schemes may not have been liked by the Mahayanists. From very early times there appear to have been attempts to show some difference between the two schemes. One of the the specific specific purposes of the composition of the Dasabhumika-Sutra may have been to show the distinction between the two schemes. This is very clearly seen from the seventh chapter onwards where the Dasabhumika-Sutra constantly emphasizes that its scheme surpasses the Sravaka and Pratyekabuddha scheme. Thus the Dasabhumika-Sutra explaining certain Samadhi attained by the Bodhisattva in the 7 th bhumi says: Sa esam samadhinam upayaprajnasuparisodhitanam pratilambhan mahakarunabalena catikranto bhavati sravakapratyekabuddhabhumim, abhimukhas sa bhavati prajnajnanavicaranabhumeh. 58 58 Dasabhumika-Sutra p.39; Dashabhumikasutra et Bodhisattvabhumi p.60, [1].

31 Again it is said: sahacittotpadena sarvasravakapratyekabuddhan abhibhavaty adhyasayamahatmyena, na punah svabuddhivicarena asyan tu saptamyam bodhisattvabhumau sthito bodhisattvah........ sravakapratyekabudhakriyam atikranto bhavati. 59 Such statements which are frequent in this chapter support the view that the scheme was expanded not because it was based on the ten Paramitas, but for the purpose of distinguishing it from the Theravada scheme, which the Mahayanist considered is inferior. The Paramitas were added to this expended scheme as factors which are to be accomplished by a Bodhisattva. Thus four new Paramitas were included further distinguishing the two schemes. The scheme of bhumi in general is not formulated on any base other than the generally accepted scheme of spiritual training consisting of Sila, Samadhi and Prajna, which is common both to Theravada or Hinayana and Schemes of bhumis as presented in the Dasabhumika-Sutra Mahayana. and Bodhisattvabhumi were formulated in such a way to assimilated Nirnimitta-bhava, Paramita, etc. into this generally accepted plan. 59 Dasabhumika-Sutra p.39. Dashabhumikasutra et Bodhisattvabhumi p.60, [J].