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The present work entitled 鈥楾he Rivers in ancient India: A Vedic and Pur膩峁噄c study鈥� gives emphasis on various information regarding the significance of river reflected in the Vedic and Pur膩峁噄c literature. The river is a very prestigious word for the Indian civilization as well as world civilization. Every great civilization of the world has been grown on the bank of a particular river. In India, almost all renowned societies have been developed with the help of a particular river. From the ancient time, people of India gave respect to these rivers and gave them status as mother (尘腻迟腻).^[1] Rituals were also done for the wellbeing of these rivers. Covering the vast geographical area, Indian rivers have been an important factor for the rural as well as urban prosperity of India. The numerous rivers of India are of great value in India carrying a wider importance in cultural, economical, geographical as well as religious development.

A river civilization in an agricultural nation flourished beside a river. In fact, all great civilization grew up in river valleys. Rivers constitute the lifeline for any country and some of the world鈥檚 great civilization (Indus Valley, Mesopotamian and Egyptian) have all prospered on the banks of the river system. Civilization tended to grow up in river valleys for a number of reasons. The most obvious is access to a usually reliable source of water for agriculture and human needs. Plentiful water, and the enrichment of the soil due to annual floods, made it possible to grow excess crops beyond what was needed to sustain an agricultural village. This allowed some members of the community to engage in non agricultural activities such as construction of buildings and cities, metal working, trade and social organization.

The Hindu consider rivers as sacred and have personified them as deities and sung their praises in their religious literature, viz. the Vedas (峁欢惫别诲补, Yajurveda, 厂腻尘补惫别诲补 and Atharvaveda), the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺蝉 etc.These cited names of several rivers that existed during the Vedic period and which had their origin in the Himalayas. Hindu mythology records several legends and anecdotes that are interwined with the rivers. Every aspect of the river life, right from its birth to each journey down the Himalayas and over the plains towards the Sindhu 厂腻驳补谤补 (ancient Arabian sea), have found mentioned in one religious text or other, like 峁欢惫别诲补, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda, 叠谤腻丑尘补峁嘺 literature and the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺蝉.These descriptive legends have often provided helpful in cataloguing some of the natural events of the period and linking some of them with the rivers perturbation. Today, since the Vedas came into existence; some of the rivers mentioned therein have become defunct or have shifted their original path.

There are ample references of rivers in Vedic and Pur膩峁噄c literature. In the Vedas, waters are mentioned not merely as divine waters or river but as the very source of the creation of the world. It is closely associated with 笔谤补箩腻辫补迟颈 and 笔谤补箩腻辫补迟颈 is identified with 叠谤补丑尘腻 in the Pur膩峁噄c literature.厂补谤补蝉惫补迟墨 is identified with 痴腻办 in the 叠谤腻丑尘补峁嘺s. 叠谤补丑尘腻 is supposed to be the creator of 厂补谤补蝉惫补迟墨. Some of the rivers in Vedic and Pur膩峁噄c age have changed their names in different states and these rivers are discussed in a comprehensive manner. In our present research work, the changing trend of the rivers from the 峁欢惫别诲补 to the Pur膩峁噄c period has also been analyzed.

The work consists of seven chapters. The first chapter is the introductory chapter. In this chapter, a short discussion regarding the Vedic literature, derivation of the word 苍补诲墨, and the synonymous words of 苍补诲墨 has been analyzed. Some of the river based civilizations are also discussed in this chapter.

The second chapter contains information regarding the various features of rivers in the 厂补峁僪颈迟腻 literature. The 峁欢惫别诲补sa峁僪it膩 is a book of poetry which is fundamentally lyrical. Nature was the vital source of inspiration for the Vedic seers. For them it was not an inert, insensate, brute matter, but was rather endowed with conscious life. Nature as the subject matter of poetry has found in each expression in the form of personification in the 峁欢惫别诲补sa峁僪it膩. Water of the sky has been personified as an impetuous warrior. Several rivers are personified and invoked as deities in the 峁欢惫别诲补sa峁僪it膩.

Rivers are connected with the mother goddess cult from time immemorial. The rivers are generally conceived as females and are regarded as Mother Goddess.

In the 驰补箩耻谤惫别诲补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻, there are references of rivers also. In the thirtyfourth 础诲丑测腻测补 of the 痴腻箩补蝉补苍别测墨蝉补峁僪颈迟腻, there is a mention of Saptasindhu, the seven rivers. In this 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, it is found that five rivers flowed on to the river 厂补谤补蝉惫补迟墨 and then became 厂补谤补蝉惫补迟墨, a fivefold river in the land.^[2]

The 础迟丑补谤惫补惫别诲补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻 gives us many references about places, rivers and mountains. Seven rivers are mentioned at many places in the 础迟丑补谤惫补惫别诲补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻. At one place, in the 础迟丑补谤惫补惫别诲补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻, ninety rivers are mentioned and it is said that the black magic mantras of 础峁単墨谤补蝉补 and the devils may go across ninety rivers.

In the third chapter, there is a discussion on the various rivers as revealed in the 叠谤腻丑尘补峁嘺 literature. 叠谤腻丑尘补峁嘺s stands for a huge mass of prose texts which contains speculations on the mantras, precepts for the application of mantras in different sacrifices, details of sacrificial as paraphernalia and theological, philosophical, grammatical, etymological and metrical speculations.

The 艢补迟补辫补迟丑补产谤腻丑补尘补峁嘺 says that the Samudra swells round the earth. In the 础颈迟补谤别测补产谤腻丑尘补峁嘺, Samudra has been mentioned several times. 罢补颈迟迟颈谤墨测补产谤腻丑尘补峁嘺 refers to the saline water of the sea. According to the 艢补迟补辫补迟丑补产谤腻丑尘补峁嘺, the waters of the 厂补谤补蝉惫补迟墨 were used for consecration. It is also told that the consecration was done with Speech. 艢补迟补辫补迟丑产谤腻丑尘补峁嘺 informs us that the mantras chanted in the sacrifice are taken to be 痴腻办, and owing to the predominance of the chanting of the mantras, the sacrifice itself has been identified with 痴腻办. The 厂腻峁卥丑腻测补峁嘺产谤腻丑尘补峁嘺 identifies 厂补谤补蝉惫补迟墨 with speech.

The fourth chapter discusses the various rivers found in the post Br膩hma峁噄c literature, i.e. 膧谤补峁噛补办补蝉 and 鲍辫补苍颈峁�a诲蝉. Though 膧谤补峁噛补办补蝉 are the forest literature, still there are no descriptions of rivers in it,but only the name of one or two rivers are found. In the 厂腻峁卥丑腻测补峁嚹乺补峁噛办补, there is only mention of the name of a river called Vijar膩. In the 础颈迟补谤别测腻谤补峁噛办补, there is a mention of water.

In the 鲍辫补苍颈峁�a诲, a little bit of information are found regarding the rivers. All the rivers of India are symbolized as goddesses except the river Brahmaputra. The Hindus have been revering rivers since the Vedic times. The Indus people also might have worshipped rivers and had some associate rituals. In the 叠峁沨补诲腻谤补峁噛补办辞辫补苍颈峁�a诲, the rivers are described as the group of his rivers. In one mantra of the 笔谤补艣苍辞辫补苍颈峁�a诲, it is found that the rivers flow towards the ocean. The same descriptions of rivers are also found in the 惭耻峁囜笉补办辞辫补苍颈峁�a诲 also.^[3] In the minor 鲍辫补苍颈峁�a诲蝉, there are some references that related to the rivers.

The fifth chapter has dealt with rivers as depicted in the Pur膩峁噄c literature. In the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺蝉, rivers occupy an important place. In the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺蝉, it is found that rivers originate in lakes. Each river has, in their accounts, invariably a lake visible or invisible as its source. In its turn, this lake lies at a foot of a mountain and collects the rain which runs down its slopes. Thus, according to the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺蝉, each river has a corresponding lake and an associated mountain. The 笔耻谤腻峁嘺蝉 believe that a river can infiltrate, through subterranean channels mountain ranges or minor impediments, which lie across its course. As a consequence, the water of a lake could filter through the bounding ridges and give rise to streams on opposite slopes. Thus, in the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺蝉, it is found a river could flow in as many as two, three or more channels, separated by intermediate ridges. The authors of the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺蝉 consider a river with all its tributaries as one river. They do not usually give separate names for tributaries while describing the main river.

In the 笔耻谤腻峁嘺蝉, various epithets are used for rivers in general. Such adjectives imply the munificence and benevolent nature of rivers. They flow and give water to the earth. The rivers bring along with them many beneficial boons for human happiness. It is due to this fact that they are affectionately called mothers of the world.^[4]

In the sixth chapter, the changing trends of the rivers from Vedic to Pur膩峁噄c age have been thoroughly discussed. In this chapter, attempts have been made to describe the dynamics of the river streams, their earlier courses, changes in these courses, processes responsible for such changes and a host of other related matters. Some rivers are lost and some are existing with the same name or the other. In due course of time, some of the river changes their courses. In present time, though some rivers are lost, some organizations are trying to discover the reasons and hence taken some steps to dig such river once again.

The seventh chapter consists of a concluding remark on the work. After reviewing all the chapters, it can be summed up that the rivers in India are considered and worshipped as god and goddess among the Hindus. The rivers were a great source of water for the civilization and they provided a reliable transportation system. As in many parts of the world, civilization in India also flourished around rivers and rivers remain an enduring symbol of national culture. Different generations have considered rivers as sacred and personified them as deities and sung in their praises in their religious literature. Several rivers existed during the Vedic period and had their origin in the Himalayas. The rivers are not considered merely a flowing mass of waters but they are regarded life protecting divine mothers except the Lauhitya river. The Lauhitya river can not be called mother because this river is masculine in gender but the other rivers are feminine.

The rivers are the life-line of India. From the time immemorial, the rivers played a constructive role to build the Indian culture, history and civilization. For that reason, the rivers enjoyed a respected position in the literature, history and culture of India. In the Vedic literature, rivers are stated as the mother of human civilization. From ancient to modern literature, the rivers always played a significant role and will earn honour from the future literature and culture. In conclusion, it may be stated that if rivers are survived, civilization will be continued.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

峁欢惫别诲补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, 7.36.6

[2]:

痴腻箩补蝉补苍别测墨 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, 34.11

[3]:

M.U., 3.2.8

[4]:

cf., Bha峁�峁�膩c膩rya, R膩ma艣a峁卥ara, 滨迟颈丑腻蝉补-Pur膩峁嘺k膩 Anu艣墨lana, p.219