Vishnudharmottara Purana (Art and Architecture)
by Bhagyashree Sarma | 2021 | 59,457 words
This page relates 鈥楢 General Note on Art鈥� of the study on the elements of Art and Architecture according to the Vishnudharmottara Purana: an ancient text whose third book deals with various artisan themes such as Architecture, Painting, Dance, Grammar, etc. Many chapters are devoted to Hindu Temple architecture and the iconography of Deities and their installation rites and ceremonies.
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3. A General Note on Art
Art is a form of an action through which people can express their thoughts and ideas. With the medium of Art people can be able to pass information to others. It is a spontaneous manifestation of one鈥檚 imagination. Art is impossible without skill, high self standards, purpose, strength of mind, rising struggle and talent. Objects of Art are like documentaries of a thought. It can reflect the world that has departed and thus can be the source of presentation of the ideas of previous ages.[1] Art is considered as a medium of civilization of a country and it is regarded as the hall mark of the culture of that country. It reminds a strong source of history. In Sanskrit, the word Art is denoted by the term 办补濒腻.[2] 碍补峁� 濒腻迟颈 iti 办补濒腻[3] is the Sanskrit derivation of the term 办补濒腻. Here the term 办补峁� denotes 腻苍补苍诲补峁� i.e., pleasure[4] and the term 濒腻迟颈 means to give[5] . So, from the derivation of the word 办补濒腻, it is known that 办补濒腻 i.e., Art is that which gives happiness.
The history of Indian Art covers approximately five thousand years which presents a rich and almost continuous record.[6] The story of Art flourishes in the Indus Valley, in the third millennium B.C. This idea has been revealed by the remains of highly developed civilization in the Punjab and Sindh.[7] With the expansion of the Aryan territory from the Indus to the Ganges, Art and culture got an upward turn in the whole land. Aryan people were completely familiar with the Arts of dancing, singing, weaving, building, making ornaments of gold and silver and the like.
The chronological order of the development of Indian Art as stated in The Heritage of Indian Art is as follows-[8]
1. Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa are the chief centers of Indus valley Art and culture and these two civilizations belong to 3000-2250 B.C. The people of the Indus valley civilization seems to be very creative in the arts of housebuilding, stone and clay statuary, bronze casting, making of ornaments of gold and silver, ivory carving, weaving etc.
2. Aryan development in Northern India contains the Vedic and the Epic periods and these periods belong to 2500 B.C.-1500 B.C.
3. The 惭补丑腻箩补苍补辫补诲补 period belongs to 1500-600 B.C.
4. 搁腻箩补驳峁沨补 is the capital of the Empire of Magadha which comprises the period after 惭补丑腻箩补苍补辫补诲补 period. The influence of 笔腻迟补濒颈辫耻迟谤补 and Nanda dynasties of 650-325 B.C., Gautama Buddha of 623-543 B.C and 惭补丑腻惫墨谤补 of 599-527 B.C. had been seen in the art and culture of that time. The cyclopean walls of Magadha and the fortifications of R膩jgir are decorated with the paintings of that time.
5. The Maurya period belongs to 325-185 B.C. This period have been adorned with early stone sculpture, Monolithic pillars, stupas and the earliest chaitya halls in the reign of Candragupta (322-298 B.C.) and 础艣辞办补 (273-232 B.C.).
6. 艢耻峁単补 period belongs to 185-72 B.C. and this period consists of the stupas of Bharhut and Sanchi with stone railings and gateways.
7. 艢atav膩hana period of Art contains chaitya halls in western India and early stupas of Bhattiprolu and 础尘补谤腻惫补迟墨. The 艢atav膩hana period belongs to 220 B.C to 200 A.D. The 艢atav膩hana period contains a long journey of civilization.
8. Ku艣膩峁嘺 period belongs to 1 A.D.-176 A.D. This period includes Mathura school of sculpture, in where the Buddha images has been originated. 骋腻苍诲丑腻谤补 school of sculpture in Northwestern India is also a remarkable contribution in the field of Art in the Ku艣膩峁嘺 period.
9. Gupta Period comprises the time from 320 A.D to 600 A.D. The Gupta period is regarded as the Golden age of literature and Art in Indian History. Stone temples at Sanchi, Bhumra, Deogarh, brick temple at Bhitargaon etc. are the greatest construction of Art in Gupta Period. The Dhamekh stupa at Sarnath, Fresco painting on the walls of the caves of Ajanta and Bagh are also the remarkable contribution of the people of Gupta period.
10. 笔腻濒补 and 艢别苍补 dynasties of Magadha and Bengal belongs to 700-1200 A.D. These two dynasties give great contribution towards the field of Art and Architecture. Brick temple of Paharpur, stone sculptures and bronzes are famous in that time.
11. 颁腻濒耻办测补 dynasty belongs to 550-642 A.D. The 颁腻濒耻办测补 dynasty has also a bright value in the field of Art and Architecture. The Temples of Aihole, Badami and Pattadakal, excavated Buddhist, Jaina and Hindu cave temples at Ellora are the greatest monuments of 颁腻濒耻办测补 dynasty.
12. R膩strak奴峁璦 Dynesty contains the architecture of Kailasha temple at Ellora, Siva temple situated in the Elephanta caves of Maharashtra etc. The R膩strak奴峁璦 Dynesty belongs to the period from 757A.D to 973 A.D.
13. Hoya艣ala and 驰腻诲补惫补 dynasties of Karnataka belong to the period from 1111A.D to 1318 A.D. These two dynasties comprise the Architecture of temples of Halebeedu and Belur.
14. The Pallavas of Kanchi belongs to the kingdoms of the Far South and the time of the Pallavas are determined as 600-750 A.D. This period of civilization contains the 尘补峁囜笉补辫补蝉 and monolithic stone temples at Mahabalipuram and structural temples at Kanchi.
15. Thanjavur is the capital of 颁辞濒腻 dynasty. The temples of Thanjavur and Maadurai are the greatest contribution of 颁辞濒腻 dynasty.
After that the arrival of Muslim rulers bought some new elements of Art and Architecture like floral motifs, domes and beautiful calligraphy to India. The Islamic Architecture found its privilege under the Mughal empires, who constructed many beautiful forts, palaces, mosques and gardens. New elements of Gothic, Imperial, Christian and Victorian architectural styles were introduced into the Indian Architecture during the British period.[9]
There is a big controversy among the Indian and Western scholars about the classification of Art. Indian tradition, basically includes sixty four Art forms are acknowledged. The references of sixty four kinds of 办补濒腻 are found in the 叠丑腻驳补惫补迟补辫耻谤腻峁嘺[10] , Saivatantras[11] , 碍腻尘补蝉奴迟谤补 of V膩tsy膩ya峁嘺 etc.
The list of sixty four kinds of Art is given here according to the 碍腻尘补蝉奴迟谤补 of V膩tsy膩ya峁嘺[12]
2. 痴腻诲测补 i.e., Instrumental music.
5. 膧濒别办丑测补 i.e., Painting.
6. 痴颈艣别峁办补肠肠丑别诲测补 i.e., cutting of different designs on 叠丑奴谤箩补辫补迟谤补 for decorating the forehead.
7. 罢补峁囜笉耻濒补办耻蝉耻尘补惫补濒颈惫颈办腻谤补. 罢补峁囜笉耻濒补 means rice and kusuma means flower. The art form 迟补峁囜笉耻濒补办耻蝉耻尘补惫补濒颈惫颈办腻谤补 denotes creating various designs with coloured rice grains and flowers for decorating mansions or temples.[13]
8. 笔耻峁腻蝉迟补谤补峁嘺 i.e., Floral decorations
9. 顿补艣补苍补惫补蝉补苍腻峁単补谤腻驳补 i.e., colouring teeth, garments, hair, nails, body and other toiletries.
10. 惭补峁噄产丑奴尘颈办腻办补谤尘补 i.e., decoration of the floor.
11. 艢补测补苍补谤补肠补苍补 i.e., arrangement of bed, sofa, divan etc.
12. 鲍诲补办补惫腻诲测补 i.e., playing of musical instrument like muraja.[14]
13. 鲍诲补办腻驳丑腻迟补 i.e., Water sports[15]
14. 颁颈迟谤腻艣肠补 yoga i.e., the application of secret formulas and mantras.
15. 惭腻濒测补驳谤补迟丑补苍补惫颈办补濒辫补 i.e., making various garlands
16. 艢别办丑补谤补办腻辫墨岣峚测辞箩补苍补 i.e., head decoration with garland and Headgear.[16]
17. Nepathyaprayoga i.e., dressing and decorating a body.
18. 碍补谤峁嘺辫补迟谤补产丑补峁単补 i.e., making designs called 办补谤峁嘺辫腻迟谤补.
19. Gandhayukti i.e., proper uses of perfumes.
20. 叠丑奴峁峁嘺测辞箩补苍补 i.e., making ornaments.
21. 础颈苍诲谤补箩腻濒补 i.e., magic and creating illusion.
22. Kaucum膩r膩艣ca yoga i.e., preparation of ointments.
23. 贬补蝉迟补濒腻驳丑补惫补 i.e., deftness in manual work.
24. 痴颈肠颈迟谤补艣腻办补测耻辫补产丑补办峁补惫颈办腻谤补办谤颈测腻 i.e., cooking of various leaves, soup, food etc.
25. 笔腻苍补办补谤补蝉补谤腻驳腻蝉补惫补测辞箩补苍补 i.e., preparing juice and drinks.
26. 厂奴肠墨惫腻苍补办补谤尘补 i.e., needlework.
27. 厂奴迟谤补办谤墨岣嵞� i.e., making models from yarns or threads.
28. 痴墨峁嚹佱笉补尘补谤耻办补惫腻诲测腻 i.e., playing 痴墨苍补 and Damaruka, a special kind of Drum.
29. 笔谤补丑别濒颈办腻 i.e., composing and solving riddles and rhymes.
30. 笔谤补迟颈尘腻濒腻 i.e., a game in which one party recites a verse and the opposite party recites another which begins with the same letter as that on which the last verse ended.[17]
31. 顿耻谤惫腻肠补办补测辞驳补 i.e., reciting verses difficult to repeat, tongue twister and so on.
32. 笔耻峁ａ弓补办补惫腻肠补苍补 i.e., recitation.
33. 狈腻峁璦办腻办丑测腻测颈办腻诲补谤艣补苍补 i.e., knowledge of dramas and stories.
34. 碍腻惫测补蝉补尘补蝉测腻辫耻谤补峁嘺 i.e., composing other lines following a line which is given.
35. 笔补峁弓颈办腻惫别迟补惫腻苍补惫颈办补濒辫补 i.e., caning of wood frames of coats, chairs etc.
36. 罢补办峁办补谤尘补 i.e., making of mechanical aids.
37. 罢补办峁峁嘺 i.e., carpentry.
38. 痴腻蝉迟耻惫颈诲测腻 i.e., architecture.
39. 搁奴辫测补谤补迟苍补辫补谤墨办峁Ｄ� i.e., knowledge about precious metals and stones.
40. 顿丑腻迟耻惫腻诲补 i.e., knowledge of metals.
41. 惭补峁噄谤腻驳腻办补谤补箩帽腻苍补 i.e., knowledge of jewel, colours and mines.
42. 痴峁沰峁Ｄ乱奴谤惫别诲补测辞驳补 i.e., horticulture and gardening
43. 尘别峁办耻办办耻峁璦濒腻惫补办补测耻诲诲丑补惫颈诲丑颈 i.e., art of cock fighting, ram fighting and quail fighting.
44. 艢耻办补蝉腻谤颈办腻辫谤补濒腻辫补苍补 i.e., training parrot and mynas to speak and sing.
45. Uts膩dane sa峁僾膩hane ke艣amardane ca kau艣alam i.e., proficiency in pressing, shampooing and dressing hair.
46. 础办峁谤补尘耻峁ａ弓颈办腻办补迟丑补苍补 i.e., writing and understanding of code words and words in particular way.
47. Mlecchitavikalpa. The word mlecchitavikalpa is an amalgamation of two words viz. mlecchita and vikalpa. Mlecchita means to speak indistinctly like a foreigner or barbarian who does not speak Sanskrit[18] and vikalpa means option. Due to the addition of the word vikalpa with the term mlecchita, the term mlecchitavikalpa denotes the art of speaking of a new language, though indistinctly, as an option of communication.[19]
48. 顿别艣补产丑腻峁Ｄ乿颈箩帽腻苍补 i.e., knowledge of languages of other provinces and of various dialects.
49. 笔耻峁补艣补办补峁璱办腻 i.e., making flower carriages.
50. 狈颈尘颈迟迟补箩帽腻苍补 i.e., art of addressing spells, charms, auspicious and bad signs etc.
51. 驰补苍迟谤补尘腻迟峁沰腻 i.e., memory-training
52. 顿丑腻谤补峁嘺尘腻迟峁沰腻 i.e., recitation of verse.
53. 厂补峁僷腻迟丑测补 i.e., deciphering by code.
54. 惭腻苍补蝉墨 i.e., knowledge of etymology.
55. 础产丑颈诲丑腻苍补办辞辫补 i.e., knowledge of lexicography.
56. 颁丑补苍诲辞箩帽腻苍补 i.e., prosody and Rhetoric.
57. Kriy膩办补濒腻pa i.e., Art of Impersonation.
58. Vastragopana i.e., wearing garments artfully.
59. 顿测奴迟颈惫颈艣别辫补 i.e., various games to be played with dice.
60. 础办峁谤补办谤墨岣嵞� the playing of 补办峁谤补, a kind of dice-game.
61. 痴腻濒补办谤墨岣峚苍补办补 i.e., making of dolls.
62. 痴补颈苍补测颈办墨苍补 i.e., 惫补颈苍腻测颈办墨 means knowledge of proper behavior or the training of elephants and other domestic animal.
63. 痴补颈箩补测颈办墨苍补 i.e.,knowledge of science of victory.
64. 痴测腻测腻尘颈办补 i.e., physical exercise.
The western scholars like Monier Monier Williams, Plato and Aristotle also gave their view on the classification of Art. Monier Monier Williams accepts two divisions of Art which are-Practical Art and Mechanical or Fine Art.[20] Again by calling Poetry as an Art and Art as an imitation of nature he divided Art.[21] It is important to note here that after Aristotle, in the middle age, Art was divided by the point of view of education as-Professional Art and Liberal Art.[22]
Footnotes and references:
[2]:
Monier Monier Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, p.261
[3]:
艢补产诲补办补濒辫补诲谤耻尘补, Vol-2, p.58
[4]:
Monier Monier Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, p.252
[6]:
Vasudeva S.Agrawala, The Heritage of Indian Art, p. 3
[7]:
Ibid., p. 3
[8]:
Ibid., p. 3-4
[11]:
艢补产诲补办补濒辫补诲谤耻尘补, Vol.2, p.58
[12]:
g墨tam, v膩dyam, n峁泃yam, 苍腻峁瓂补尘, 膩lekhyam, vi艣e峁kacchedyam, ta峁囜笉ulakusumavalivik膩r膩岣�, pu峁膩stara峁嘺m, da艣anavasan膩峁単ar膩ga岣�, ma峁噄bh奴mik膩karma, 艣ayanaracanam, udakav膩dyam, udak膩gh膩ta岣�, citr膩艣ca 测辞驳腻岣�, m膩lyagrathanavikalp膩岣�, 艣ekharak膩p墨岣峚yojanam, nepathyapra测辞驳腻岣�, kar峁嘺patrabha峁単膩岣�, gandhayukti岣�, bh奴峁峁嘺yojanam, endraj膩l膩岣�, kaucum膩r膩艣ca 测辞驳腻岣�, hastal膩ghavam, vicitra艣膩kayupabhak峁avik膩rakriy膩, p膩nakarasar膩g膩savayojanam, m奴c墨v膩nakarm膩峁噄, m奴trakr墨岣嵞�, v墨峁嚹佱笉amarukav膩dy膩ni, prahelik膩, pratim膩l膩, durv膩caka测辞驳腻岣�, pustakav膩canam, n膩峁璦k膩khy膩yik膩dar艣anam, k膩vyasamasy膩pura峁嘺m, pa峁弓ik膩vetav膩navikalp膩岣�, tak峁karm膩峁噄, tak峁峁嘺m, v膩stuvidy膩, r奴pyaratnapar墨k峁Ｄ�, 诲丑腻迟耻惫腻诲补岣�, ma峁噄r膩g膩karaj帽膩nam, v峁沰峁Ｄ亂奴rveda测辞驳腻岣�, 尘别峁办耻办办耻峁璦濒腻惫补办补测耻诲诲丑补惫颈诲丑颈岣�, 艣ukas膩rik膩pral膩panam, uts膩dane sa峁僾膩hane ke艣amardane ca kau艣alam, 补办峁谤补mu峁ａ弓ik膩kathanam, mlecchitavikalp膩岣�, de艣abh膩峁Ｄ乿ij帽膩nam, pu峁a艣aka峁璱k膩, nimittaj帽膩nam, yantram膩t峁沰膩, dh膩ra峁嘺m膩t峁沰膩, sa峁僷膩thyam, m膩nas墨, k膩vyakriy膩, abhidh膩nakopa岣�, chandoj帽膩nam, kriy膩办补濒腻pa, chalitaka测辞驳腻岣�, vastragopan膩ni, dy奴tivi艣ep膩岣�, 膩kar峁kr墨岣嵞�, v膩lakr墨岣峚nak膩ni, vainayik墨n膩峁� vaijayik墨n膩峁� vy膩y膩mik墨n膩峁� ca vidy膩n膩峁� j帽膩nam, iti catu岣メ梗a峁ａ弓ira峁単avidy膩岣� k膩mas奴trasy膩vayavinya岣�/ 碍腻尘补蝉奴迟谤补, 1.3.16
[13]:
akha峁囜笉ata峁囜笉ulairn膩n膩var峁嘺i sarasvat墨bhavane k膩madevabhavane v膩 ma峁噄ku峁弓ime峁 bhaktivik膩r膩岣�, tath膩 kusumairn膩n膩var峁嘺irgrathitai岣� 艣ivali峁単膩dip奴j膩鈥檙thabhaktivik膩r膩岣�, atra grathanam m膩lyagrathana ev膩ntarbh奴tam/ 闯补测补尘补峁単补濒腻峁玨腻, 碍腻尘补蝉奴迟谤补, 3. p.30
[14]:
udake muraj膩divadv膩dyam/ 闯补测补尘补峁単补濒腻峁玨腻, 碍腻尘补蝉奴迟谤补, 3. p.31
[15]:
[...] 闯补测补尘补峁単补濒腻峁玨腻, 碍腻尘补蝉奴迟谤补, 3.p.31
[16]:
艣ikh膩sth膩ne鈥�.. n膩n膩var峁嘺i岣� pu峁airviravana峁� yojanam/ 闯补测补尘补峁単补濒腻峁玨腻, 碍腻尘补蝉奴迟谤补, 3.p.31
[17]:
prati艣lo办补峁� kram膩dyatra sandhy膩y膩k峁ramantimam/ pa峁環et膩峁� 艣lokamanyonya峁� pratim膩leti socyat// 闯补测补尘补峁単补濒腻峁玨腻, 碍腻尘补蝉奴迟谤补, 3. p.32
[18]:
Monier Monier Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, p.837
[19]:
yats膩dhu艣abdopanibaddhamapy补办峁谤补viny膩s膩daspa峁ａ弓膩rtha峁� tanmlecchita峁� g奴岣峢avastum膩tr膩rtham/ 闯补测补尘补峁単补濒腻峁玨腻, 碍腻尘补蝉奴迟谤补, 3. p.39
[20]:
Monier Monier Williams, Sanskrit English Dictionary, P.261
[21]:
Lokesh Chandra Sharma, A Brief History of Indian Painting, p.4
[22]:
Ibid., p.5