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Shaivism is one of the most popular and widely practiced traditions of what presentday scholars called Hinduism. This tradition advocates the supremacy of god, Siva, who according to the Hindu belief system is destroyer of universe. There are various Saivite traditions which advocate diverse theologies and philosophies to reach this ultimate reality (Siva). In this regard we have Pasupata, Vedic-Puranic, Veera Saiva, Saiva Siddhanta, and Trika Saiva.^[1] There is controversy among scholarly writings with regard to the historicity of Siva worship in the mainland India. Some scholars are tracing its genealogy in proto historic times. In this regard Sir John Marshall, the pioneer excavator of Indus valley civilization, have made an attempt in his book Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilization, in which he has devoted five pages of its chapter entitled 鈥淩eligion鈥�, to the discussion of steatite seal, number four hundredtwenty. In this direction he argues that this Mohenjodaro steatite seal which represent horned figure surrounded by animals like Tiger, Elephant, Water Buffalo, and Rhinoceros, is proto type of Siva called Pasupati or lord of animals.^[2] Now the question arises why and how Marshall referred the figure on Mohenjodaro seal as Pasupati and then how is Pasupati related to Siva. Rigveda refers in its three hymns a minor god Rudra literally one who roars, depicted as wearing animal skin, brown in colour with the belly black and red back.^[3]  

Among various epithets of Rudra one which Rigveda mentions is Siva (auspicious). So this makes clear that Rudra and Siva are one and the same. Similarly detailed description of Siva is found in Yajurveda, Puranas, and Epics. Yajurveda talks about almost a hundred epithets of Siva and one among them is Pasupati. Hence, it becomes apparent that the 搁颈驳惫别诲补鈥檚 Rudra has epithet of Siva and 驰补箩耻谤惫别诲补鈥檚 Siva has epithet of Pasupati, hence the three are one and the same. With the passage of time many Saiva traditions began to emerge in mainland India of these earliest was Pasupati Shaivism, founded by Lakulisa around first or second century A.D. This tradition is monotheistic in outlook which believes in Atimarga or ascetic path and has two undercurrents-Lakula and Kalamukhas.^[4] The followers of this tradition had distinct identity, they covered their bodies with ashes, wear garlands of human bones and kept with them skull bowls.^[5] With regard to its philosophical aspect, it recognises three realities these are Pati (lord), Pasu (being) and Pasa (bond) and believes in Dvaita-advaita or dual cum non-dual character of the three.

Similarly, another form of Saivism which emerged in mainland India is that of Vedic-Puranic Shaivism. This tradition advocates worshipping Siva in idol form, making of temples, visiting tirthas, performing rituals etc. Besides the above two forms of Shaivism there are some other Saivite traditions which emerged in Indian subcontinent and have particular spatial identity, these are Saiva Siddhanta of Tamil Nadu, Veera Saiva of Karnataka and Andhra and Trika Shaivism in Kashmir.^[6]

The advent of Saivism in the religious landscape of Kashmir is not clearly known to us. But, it is not unfair to suggest that like that of Buddhism its introduction in the valley also have been the outcome of cultural exchanges with other Indic regions where the Siva worship was already in practice. If Kalhana is to be believed, the worship of Siva was prevalent in Kashmir before third century B.C. He states Asoka replaced Siva Vijayesvara shrine鈥檚 old stucco enclosure with the new one that of stone. This statement makes it apparent that Siva shrine already existed in Kashmir before Asoka ruled it.^[7] Thus, this narrative pushes the historicity of Shaivism parallel to that of Buddhism in Kashmir and makes it difficult to identify which one among the two came earlier. As referred above that in the mainland India Pasupata Shaivism was the earliest form of Saivism prevalent and practiced, same is presumably true to that of Kashmir. Kalhana informs us that the court of king Samdhimati (5^th century A.D.) was adorned by the Siva ascetics who keep ashes with them, prayer-beads of berries and knots of the matted hair.^[8] Besides Pasupata form, Vedic-Puranic Shaivism was another form which was practiced in Kashmir. The major source which comprehensively talks about this form of Saivism in Kashmir is Nilamatapurana, besides it Kalhana鈥檚 Rajatarangini also gives us references about it, even each Taranga (chapter) of the text opens with gratitude and salutations to Siva especially in the form of Ardhnaresvara (lord who is half male and half female).^[9] The archeological sources especially monuments and iconographic evidences speak elaborately about the practice of this particular form of Shaivism in Kashmir, which will be discussed subsequently.

Nilamatapurana refers Siva one among the triad of Brahmanical gods but unlike the Indic Brahmanical literature where Siva only carries function of destruction, 狈颈濒补尘补迟补辫耻谤补苍补鈥檚 Siva carries all the three i.e., creation, preservation and destruction. The text refers him with various epithets like Rudra, Mahadeva, Sarva Bhava, Mahesvara, Sambhu, Ardhnaresvara, Sankara etc and highlights his both Vedic and non-Vedic character. At some places he is associated with Pisaca and Raksasas which becomes evident by the following Sloka:

O Brahmana, highly strong and pious-minded Nikumba, along with his followers, worship Sankara on that fourteenth.^[10]

Similarly one third of the text is devoted to the description of Siva, but the narrative refers him as inferior to the supreme god called Visnu, which is evident from the following Sloka.

Salutation to you鈥擮 god, you are final resort of all the gods when they are in suffering. The senses, the object of senses, the gross physical elements, the mind, the intellect, the soul, Avyakta born of Purusa, Sattva, Rajas, Tamas, Brahma, Mahesvara, the three worlds including movable and immovable, all this is pervaded by you. I do not see anything else than yourself in the three worlds.^[11]

State of Shaivism in Pre-Ninth Century A.D.: 

During the period under review we see that some rulers prior to sixth century A.D. supplied patronage to Shaivism by erecting Saivite structures and giving Agraharas to Brahmans. But up to this time it was Buddhism which was dominant. However, shift is seen in changing dominance from Buddhism to Shaivism around sixth century A.D. Broadly speaking there are two causes responsible for the same, one is political and another intellectual.

The biggest political patronage to Saivism at the cost of other alternate religious traditions especially that of Buddhism came from sixth century A.D. Hun ruler, Mihirkula, which becomes evident by the statement of a Chinese pilgrim Song-Yun (6^th century A.D) who informs us that Mihirkula was hostile to Buddhists and committed their massacre.^[12] He was an ardent devotee of Siva^[13] who built Siva shrine called Mihiresvara at Srinagari. Mihirkula endeavored to see the people of Kashmir worshipping Siva and with this endeavour he brought Brahmans from the land of Gandhara and allotted them thousand Agraharas in Vijayesvara (Bijbehara). Bringing Brahmans from outside lands despite of good number of them being in Kashmir already, makes it apparent that he did not acknowledged the merit of local Brahmans may be because of their accommodative character with people of other faiths,^[14] which was against the etiquette of his own religious understanding. But Kalhana expressed his severe contempt towards these Gandhara Brahmans by referring them as indecent and lowest of twice-born (Divija).^[15] Baka who succeeded Mihirkula built the shrine of Siva Bakesa in the town of Lavanotsa.^[16] Similarly, Gopaditya is said to have consecrated the shrine of Jyesthesvara on the Gopa-hill and allotted Agraharas called Gopa Agraharas on Brahmans who had come to Kashmir from Aryadesa.^[17] Narendraditya I consecrated shrines of Siva Bhutesvara and also gave endowment for the maintenance of Brahmans.^[18] Tunjina I and his wife Vakpusta who ruled Kashmir just like Ganga and the crescent (diadem of Siva) built a Siva temple called Tungesvara^.79 Another ruler Sresthasena who is also known as Pravaresvara I and Tunjina II built a Siva shrine called Pravaresvara and consecrated various shrines at Puranadhisthana.^[19]  

In the fourth decade of seventh century A.D. Karkota rulers took over Kashmir, they were personally inclined towards Vaisnavism but patronized Shaivism too. Thus Pratapaditya鈥檚 wife built Siva temple called Narendresvara. Similarly, Lalitaditya took from the state exchequer one crore, when left for conquests, and on his return presented eleven crores to the shrine of Bhutesa (Siva). Lalitaditya鈥檚 minister Mitrasarman erected the linga of Siva named as Mitresvara. Similarly, Jayapida built Siva temple Vipulakesava inside Malhanapura. The archaeological evidences especially monuments and iconographies do substantiate the above narrative. For example pertaining to sixth century A.D. we have Mahesvara as Bhutesvara from Fatehghar (Baramulla), Mahesvara with Uma from Ushkur (Baramulla), Fragmentary grey chlorite ekamukhalinga from Baramulla, Grey chlorite ekamukhalinga from Pulwama. Pertaining to seventh century A.D. we have fragmentary grey chlorite Ganesa from Ganderbal, Saivite Dvarapala and Mahesvara from Badamibagh. Pertaining to eighth and ninth century A.D. we have Hari-Hara, Kumara and colossal Saivite temple complex at Naranag (Ganderbal).^[20]

The intellectual support which helped Shaivism to gain and maintain the dominant space than Buddhism in the religious landscape of Kashmir was supplied by the text called Nilamatapurana. This text as has been highlighted by many scholars was the extension of Indic Puranas which attempted to accommodate diverse religious traditions into the larger stream of Brahmanism. Now, the question arises that how Nilamatapurana played part in shifting the dominance from Buddhism to Saivism, the answer to this question lies in the ranks of the gods in the text. For example Nilamatapurana refers to the worship of Buddha, but it is not Buddha who was second highest in the text rather it is Siva who is highest after the Visnu, by doing it Nilamatapurana created among audience the sense of superiority of Siva over Buddha and made it possible to replace dominance of Shaivism over Buddhism.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

Gavin Flood, The Blackwell Companion to Hinduism (India: Blackwell publishing, 2008), 200219.

[2]:

Wendy Doniger, The Hindus: An Alternate History (New Delhi: Speaking Tiger, 2015), 74.

[3]:

Flood, The Blackwell Companion, 204-205.

[4]:

T. Nirmal and K. Jency Priya, 鈥淪haivism and its Pasupata sect,鈥� International journal of research culture society, vol 4, issue 6(2020), 45-47.

[5]:

Flood, The Blackwell Companion, 207.

[6]:

See Flood, The Blackwell Companion

[7]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini, Taranga 1, verse 105.

[8]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini, Taranga 2 , verse 127.

[9]:

See the opening verse of each Taranga of Rajatarangini.

[10]:

Nilamatapurana, vol 2, verse 575.

[11]:

Nilamatapurana, vol 2, verse 1258-60.

[12]:

John Siudmak, The Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture of Ancient Kashmir and its influences (Leiden: Brill, 2013), 15.

[13]:

This is also known from his coins which carries Vahana (vehicle) of Siva, Nandi.

[14]:

Armugan Hijaji, 鈥淐ontribution of Kashmir to the Development of Buddhism,鈥� The Journal of Kashmir Studies 4,no 1,(2010),129.

[15]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini, Taranga 1 , verse 307.

[16]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini, Taranga 1, verse 329.

[17]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini, Taranga 1 , verse 341.

[18]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini, Taranga 1, verse 347.

[19]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini, Taranga 3 , verse 99.

[20]:

For more comprehensive details see Siudmak, The Hindu-Buddhist Sculpture and Ram Chandra Kak, Ancient Monuments of Kashmir (Srinagar: Gulshan Publishers, 2002).