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Among various developments of sixth century B.C, the emergence of dissent traditions against the dominance of Vedic-Brahmanism in mainland India is noteworthy.^[1] One of these dissenters was Siddhartha or what his contingent of followers calls him Gautama Buddha, who laid the foundations of a dissent tradition called Buddhism. The liberated theology and philosophy of the tradition gradually influenced and attracted wide range of common masses as well as the political elite of his times and after, hence forged for itself both popular and political support. The study into the history of Buddhism in the mainland India offers us a picture that it generated popular and political support around sixth century B.C. and enjoyed the same up to fourth century A.D. Forging this support was made possible by the Buddhist missionary activities during and after the lifetime of Buddha. Buddhist monks began to work restlessly for its spatial spread and hence took its theology and philosophy not only to the various Indic regions but also to different parts of the world.^[2]

Among various regions of ancient south Asia where Buddhism flourished in its every aspect, Kashmir was one among them. However, the history and trajectory of the advent of Buddhism in mainland India and Kashmir is not identical. As referred above, Buddhism in the mainland India appeared in sixth century B.C.as dissent towards Vedic-Brahmanism.^[3] But the introduction of Buddhism in Kashmir鈥檚 socialcultural landscape was not the outcome of non-conformism towards Brahmanism, but owing to the cultural exchanges between Kashmir and the regions of mainland India. History of ancient Kashmir is replete with the evidences of cultural connectivity of Kashmir with the Indic regions like, Kannauj, Kalyani, and Gandhara etc. However, controversy has arisen in the historiography over the historicity of the advent of Buddhism in Kashmir. The controversy mainly hinges around weather the faith was introduced in Kashmir in Pre-Asokan times (before 3^rd century B.C) or introduced by Mauryan king Asoka (3^rd century B.C) after the third Buddhist council, which he conveyed at Pataliputra around 250 B.C.

Narrative(s) of Buddhism before Asoka:

Some textual sources indicate that Buddhism was prevalent in Kashmir before Mauryan Asoka sent his Buddhist missionary to Kashmir. For example, many monks from Tamasavana, a place in Kashmir, were invited to participate in the third Buddhist council conveyed at Pataliputra by Maurya Asoka writes Buddhist text Divyavadana.^[4] These monks belonged to the Theravada (school of elders) branch called Sarvastivada and were actually from Magadha, had taken refuge in Kashmir owing to the hostility of their rivals.^[5]  

Based on above narratives the interpretation for pre third century B.C. historicity of Buddhism in Kashmir has been offered by Advaitavadini Kaul, J.N Ganhar and P.N Ganhar. But emerges a critical question that how the advent of Buddhist monks who were refugees not missionaries led the establishment of Buddhism in Kashmir? Similarly another critical question arises that is not there a possibility to look Asoka鈥檚 invitation to these monks (for the participation in Buddhist council, conveyed at a place called Magadh, which was their actual homeland) as an initiative to get them back under state protection? Apart from the above literary narratives, to support pre third century B.C. historicity, Kalhana鈥檚 Rajatarangini also has some narratives to offer. For example, Kalhana informs us, Surendra, son of Khagendra, was the first Buddhist king of Kashmir who built Narendrabhavana Vihara in the neighborhood of Dard country. He is also credited with building another Vihara called Saurasa in his own land.^[6]

Kalhana also refers another king by name of Janaka, who is said to have built a Buddhist Vihara at Jalora.^[7] Both these kings ruled Kashmir before Mauryan Asoka. Similarly, another reference of Rajatarangini further substantiates the above narrative. We are being informed that Asoka built colossal Chaitya within the premises of Dharmaranya Vihara.^[8] It seems Vihara already existed before Asoka built Chaitya. But Kalhana鈥檚 account especially for those narratives which are in the first three Tarangas to which the above narrative is no exception, needs to be evaluated through severe critical analysis, as for the composition of these Tarangas he mostly relied on folktales, legends, myths and oral tradition. Similarly sixteenth-seventeenth century A.D. Tibetan scholar Taranatha, known for his magnum opus History of Buddhism in India, also mentions the presence of Buddhism before Asoka, by referring the existence of not less than a dozen of Viharas in Kashmir on the arrival of Madhyantika.^[9]

Narrative(s) of Buddhism by Asoka:

Apart from the above narrative, on the other side, most of the Buddhist sources give credit to Maurya Asoka in order to bring Buddhism to Kashmir, through Majjhantika, monk of Kashi (Banaras), Majjhantika. In the same context Mahavamsa informs us that Mogali son of Tisa, the council president, sent numerous monks to different regions of the world to spread the Buddhist faith, following the conclusion of the third Buddhist council (3rd century B.C.) in Pataliputra (near modern-day Patna).

Majjhantika was one of these monks, assigned to Gandhara and Kashmir. On the eve of his arrival to Kashmir he had confrontation with local Naga king Aravala, but the spiritual powers of monk dominated the scene and Aravala along with other Nagas submitted and embraced Buddhist faith.^[10] Hiuen-Tsang, seventh century A.D. Chinese pilgrim, also refers Majjhantika narrative in different attire. He informs us, following subduing a malevolent spirit in Udyana, the Buddha told Ananda that Arhat Madhyantika would create a kingdom in Kashmir, civilize its local people, and spread the teachings of the Buddha. Madhyantika was overjoyed by this prediction, when reached to him after fifty years of his Nirvana. Thus, he left for the region and introduced Buddhism.^[11] Similarly Buddhist text Mulasarvastivadavinaya refers confrontation between the Buddhist monk Madhyandina and the Naga deity namely Hulunda, how the former saved the valley from the latter and brought Buddhism to the region along the human population, whose subsistence was secured by the introduction of saffron crocus. Similar kinds of narratives are also found in Asokavadana, Avadana-Kalpalata, and Tibetan Dulva etc.^[12]

By analyzing both the above narratives it appears Buddhism was prevalent in Kashmir before Asoka sent Majjhantika. However the advent of Majjhantika proved just nourishment to the already existing faith. In this regard some scholars have suggested that since Kashmir had already strong connections with the regions of the mainland india, hence it is reasonable to suggest that number of Buddhist saints might had been to Kashmir before Asoka and succeeded in propagating the Buddhist faith and winning audience towards the fold.^[13] But this suggestion requires critical and comprehensive research in future, which doesn鈥漷 come into the domain of present thesis.

Keeping aside the controversy over the historicity of Buddhism in Kashmir, there is no doubt in the fact that the region gradually emerged as an important centre of Buddhism and Buddhist learning especially during the Kushana period (1^st-2^nd century A.D). In many respects, the region is very significant to Buddhism. Firstly, it is the place where fourth Buddhist council was held by Kushanas of which Hiuen Tsang gives comprehensive details^[14] though the same is debated by scholars.^[15] Secondly, region had produced Buddhist saints of par excellence who contributed restlessly in the development of Buddhist literature and missionary activities by spreading Buddhist faith to Tibet, China, Central Asia etc.^[16]

In this direction it is worth to quote P.C Bagchi:

Kashmir takes the leading part in the transmission of Buddhist traditions directly to China. The number of Buddhist scholars who went to china from Kashmir is larger than that of those who went from other parts of India. Kashmir was the most flourishing centre of Buddhist learning in India in this period. It was the centre of the most powerful Buddhist sect of northern India.^[17]

State of Buddhism in Pre-Ninth Century A.D.:

Before the third century B.C. King Surendra and his son and successor Janaka patronized Buddhism. After these rulers, it was Emperor Asoka^[18] under whose statesmanship Buddhism in Kashmir grew exponentially as he built many Stupas and a colossal Chaitya within a Dharmaranya Vihara at Vitastatra town in Kashmir.^[19] Hiuen-Tsiang reports four Stupas of each to have a pint measure of relics of Tathagata were built by Emperor Asoka.^[20] Asoka鈥檚 successor Jaluka was initially anti-Buddhist who destroyed a Buddhist Vihara and gave patronage to Saivism. He also took a vow of worshipping ever Vijayesvara and Jyesthesa (Siva) at Nandiseksetra and also erected a shrine of Jyestharudra at Srinagari.^[21] But he changed his attitude towards Buddhists and built Krtyasrama Vihara.^[22] After Jaluka, Kashmir was taken up politically by the Indo-Greeks (2^nd century B.C), whom Kalhana refers by Malechas, attested by literary and archaeological sources.^[23] Indo-Greeks too patronized Buddhism in Kashmir and the major evidence scholars highlight in this regard is the Sanskrit treatise, Milinda Panha. This treatise records a discussion between Greek king Menander and Kashmiri Buddhist saint Nagasena over various aspects, which had taken place only one hundred and ninety-two mile from Kashmir. Some scholars argue that this debate took place somewhere between present day Badarwah and Kishtwar.^[24] This conversation resulted in the conversion of Greek king Menander to Buddhism and his subsequent withdrawal of kingship to join Buddhist sangha (monastic order). The same king is also associated with the establishment of Milinda Vihara.^[25]

Buddhism in mainland India in general and that of Kashmir in particular reached to the pinnacle of its glory with the advent of Kushana kings on the political landscape. The Kushana kings especially Kanishka played a significant role in the spread and development of Buddhism not only in Kashmir but in the entire north India. Whatever developments took place in Buddhism under Kushanas at mainland India had its presence and influence in Kashmir too. Like mainland India, Kashmir during Kushana period to the large extent was under possession of Buddhists, who by practicing the law of religious mendicancy acquired great renown writes Kalhana.^[26]

These kings built many Buddhist Viharas and Chaityas and encouraged Buddhist scholars from various regions to come and live in Kashmir. Famous name in this regard is that of Nagarjuna, who propagated Buddhist philosophy of emptiness, Sunyata.^[27] One of the most important things which need due consideration and discussion is that no doubt during this period the political patronage to Buddhism was supplied by Kushana kings, but to maintain its dominant position in the society over then prevalent alternate traditions was made possible by the Buddhist scholars. In this regard Kalhana informs us about Nagarjuna鈥檚 debate with Brahmans who were presumably Saivites and after defeating those by his intellectual depth left their religious practices in disuse. Similarly, the importance of Kashmir with regard to Buddhism can be deduced from the fact that Kanishka chose it to convey fourth Buddhist council. With regard to this council Hiuen Tsang informs us that Kanishka was fond of reading Buddhist sacred texts under the guidance of a Buddhist monk, but was disheartened after finding divergent and contradictory views of scholars over them. Hence he decided to convey a learned scholars鈥� council and arrange Tripitaka (Three Baskets) for the restoration of Buddhism to its eminence. The criterion for participation in the council was initially kept only for Arhats (worthy one) but the availability of the participants exceeded in the same. It was decided only those could participate who have acquired freedom from studies, but still numbers were large.

Subsequently those who possess Trividyas (three enlightenments) and Sadabhijnas (six spiritual faculties) could participate; still a galaxy of participants remained eligible. Finally, the criteria was changed to those who were acquainted with both Tripitaka and five Vidyas-Sabdavidya, Chikitsavidya, Adhyatmavidya, Silapasthanavidya and Hetuvidya,^[28] at last remained four hundred and ninety nine for final participation in the council to which Vasumitra was elected as head and the Kashmir destination. The people in the council composed thirty myriads of verses ten for each to explain Sutta, Vinaya and Abhidhamma. After composing them Kanishka ordered these to be engraved on copper sheets enclosed in stone boxes, kept at the centre inside a Stupa, under the custody of Yaksas for the benefit of people who dwell in this country.^[29]

One of the remarkable developments within Buddhism in the mainland India under Kushanas, to which Kashmir was no exception, was the rise of the Mahayana or Greater school. Before Mahayana it was Hinayana or more appropriately Theravada (elders鈥� school) Buddhism which was practiced by people in mainland India. Similarly Buddhism in Kashmir before the advent of Mahayana was that of Sarvastivada (branch of Theravada) also called Abhidharma tradition. The emergence of the Mahayana school is attributed to the subscription of the Sanskrit language by Kushana kings for the future Buddhist discourse throughout the whole range of their empire. They encouraged Sanskrit language for the composition of Buddhist scriptures, propagation, debates and discussions etc. The patronage to Sanskrit had a deeper impact on the Buddhist faith, as now the tradition is dominated by the people having command over this specific language, thus; only beneficiaries of it were Brahman converts like Asvaghosa, Nagarjuna, Vasubandhu etc. These Brahman converts could not keep themselves completely away from their past polytheistic legacies. Hence, the outcome was the deification of Buddha, creation of gods like Avalokitesvara (god of compassion) and Manjusri, replacement of Arhatship (one who attains salvation for himself only) with that of Bodhisattvas (one who attains salvation for others also), and shift from idol-less to idolized faith, as Buddha is now worshipped in the image form.^[30]

The emergence and patronage to Mahayana Buddhism is also attested by Kushana archaeology in Kashmir. Kushana rulers patronized the art of sculpture making in order to produce idols for worship which is evident from the various archaeological sites of Kashmir especially Harwan and Semthan. Harwan is one of the most important Buddhist sites of Kashmir with regard to the Kushana period. The site revealed broken body limbs of Buddha and Bodhisattvas. Also in the level IV of Semthan excavation was discovered a remarkable headless Bodhisattva terracotta figure with hands in Abhayamudra posture, wearing a sleeved tunic down to knees with intermittent delineated folds running parallel to one another.^[31] Thus, during Kushana period Kashmir emerged as a centre of Buddhist activities and learning which in subsequent centuries played a significant role in giving birth to many Kashmiri Buddhist scholars of extra ordinary caliber, who subsequently played a significant role in the development of Buddhist literature and the propagation of Buddhist faith to the various corners of the world.

After the end of Kushana rule, Buddhism slowly began to lose its dominance in favour of Saivism and Vaisnavism which finally came into appearance by sixth century A.D. This could be attributed to many reasons, firstly, the rulers after Kushanas began to supply their support to Saivism^[32] and subsequently from seventh century A.D. onwards to Vaisnavism except Meghavahana (5^th century A.D).The biggest stroke to Buddhist faith came from sixth century A.D. Hun ruler Mihirkula, referred by Kalhana as the 鈥渢error of the earth鈥� due to his excessive cruelty. He was a staunch devotee of Siva and wanted to establish Saivism with great rigidity for which he is said to have brought Brahmans from Gandhara and allotted them a thousand Agraharas in Vijayesvara (Bijbehara).^[33]  

Bringing Brahmans from outside Kashmir indicates he was not satisfied with the work of local Brahmans. This harsh attitude towards Buddhism continued till a Magadhan prince Meghavahana (6^th century A.D) was called by the Kashmiri ministers to rule Kashmir. With the advent of Meghavahana to the throne of Kashmir the lost glory of Buddhism was restored back for a time being. He, by dint of his power tried to establish Buddhism not only in Kashmir but also in the other regions which he conquered under his expansionist policy. Kalhana informs us that he surpassed even Bodhisattvas by his good deeds. His determination to championise the Buddhist faith is attested by passing a law against the slaughter of living creatures which was a big blow for the community earning their bread by slaughtering animals (butchers). But the visionary king helped them out with fiscal assistance from the state exchequer. During his reign, Buddhist structures were erected at a large scale, his queen Amrtaprabha built a lofty Amrtabhavana Vihara for the foreign Bhiksus. A foreign monk of Loh (which Buhler identifies with Leh) was a guru of the father in law of the above king, built stupa known as Lo-stonpa. Kings another wife Yukadevi built Nadavana Vihara with a wonderful appearance. In one of these Viharas were kept Bhiksus of good conduct and in other half married ones. Indra Devi another wife of the king built Indradevibhavana Vihara together with a stupa.^[34] With the death of Meghavahana the brief period of this revitalized prevalence of Buddhism began to fade, but still there is no record of Buddhist persecutions taking place thereafter. Even the Buddhist buildings continued to be erected and the best example is of Jayendra Vihara built during Pravarasena II (6^th century A.D) reign. King Ranadity鈥檚 queen also favored Buddhism. Reportedly, she is said to have placed an image in the Vihara built by Meghavahana鈥檚 wife Bhinna.^[35] Karkota rulers (7^th-9^th century A.D) also patronized Buddhists and established various Buddhist structures, but under them it was Vaisnavism which assumed the space of dominant tradition.

Apart from the efforts of political class to establish dominance of other religious traditions than Buddhism in post Kushana period, except Meghavahana (6th century A.D), another cause which can be attributed in this regard is the revival of Brahmanism with accommodative theology. In the mainland India the process of accommodating Buddhism within the fold of Brahmanism had started with the composition of Matsya Purana dated around 6^th century A.D.^[36] This Indic Matsya Purana accommodated Buddhism within the fold of Brahmanism by projecting Buddha as Avatar of Visnu.^[37] The similar methodology was subscribed by Brahmans in Kashmir to accommodate Buddhist population within the fold of Brahmanism. Similar to the analogy of Matsya Purana, Buddha as Avatar of Visnu was referred in Kashmir鈥檚 native Purana called Nilamatapurana.^[38] This created a belief among people that Buddha is minor god and Visnu supreme.

Famous Kashmiri Buddhist Scholars:

Skandhila was a well versed scholar of Buddhist lore who lived in Kashmir around fifth century A.D. and has taught to a famous Buddhist scholar called Samghabhadra. Samghabhadra (5^th century A.D) after getting well versed in Buddhist education from Skandhila, emerged gradually as a scholar of high repute by developing an exceptional command and specialization on the Vibhasa Sastras of Sarvastivada School. Such was the fame of his scholarship that a celebrated Buddhist monk of Gandhara, Vasubandhu came to learn at his feet. It was probably under the influence of former that the latter wrote commentary on Abhidarma from the Sarvastivada point of view.

Another noteworthy scholar was Bandhudatta of Sarvastivada School who lived in Kashmir around fifth century A.D. His scholarship is known by the fact that when Kumarajiva came to Kashmir from Kucha (central Asia) to study Buddhist literature and philosophy, he was submitted under the supervision of Bandhudatta, who taught him Madyama Agama and Dirgha Agama.

Another scholar namely Ravigupta was known for his expertise in Sunyata or Madhyamaka philosophy of Buddhism lived in Kashmir around eighth century A.D. He is said to have been a teacher of a famous Buddhist monk Sarvajnamitra (Kalhana refers him as second Buddha).

Kashmiri Buddhist Scholars to China, Central Asia and Tibet:

Sanghabhuti was the first Kashmir Buddhist scholar who went to northern capital of china around fourth century A.D. to spread Buddhism. After reaching china he translated number of Buddhist texts into Chinese language and the most famous of them was Vinaya of Sarvastivada School.

Sanghadeva was another Buddhist scholar of Kashmir who went to china around fourth century A.D. He helped the Chinese Buddhist followers with the translation of Tridharmaka-Sastra and Abhidharmahrdaya Sastra into Chinese.

Another Kashmiri Buddhist scholar namely Punyatrata went to china in fifthsixth century A.D. Here he came in contact with a Buddhist saint Kumarajiva. Both the scholars translated 厂补谤惫补蝉迟颈惫补诲补痴颈苍补测补鈥檚 twenty nine sections into Chinese language.

Kumarajiva was born and brought up in Kucha (central Asia). His father was actually a Kashmiri who had moved to Kucha and had subsequently joined king鈥檚 court as chief advisor. Kumarajiva lost his father at the age of nine and around eleven he was brought to Kashmir by his mother to study Buddhism. After finishing his studies he returned back to Kucha and gradually assumed a great fame as a scholar of Buddhism. In fifth century A.D. Kucha faced onslaught in the hands of the Chinese army and Kumarajiva was taken as a prisoner. Chinese king who was already aware of his scholarship received him with great fervor. After reaching china Kumarajiva stayed at Chang鈥檃苍 monastery for long twelve years and was appointed a head of the translation project of Buddhist texts into Chinese language. In this monastery he is said to have translated three hundred texts, famous among them was Prajnaparamita Sutra.

Dharmamitra was a Buddhist scholar of Kashmir who went to Central Asia around fifth century A.D. for the propagation of Buddhist faith. He went first to Kucha and subsequently to other parts of Central Asia. Similarly, Dharmakaradatta was a native of Kashmir and well versed in Buddhist logic. He reached Tibet around late eighth century A.D. and translated Vinayavastu in Tibetan language.^[39]

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

For comprehensive details see Bhairabi Prasad Sahu, ed., Iron and Social Change in Early India (New Delhi: Oxford university press, 2006).

[2]:

See, Michael Carrithers, Buddha: A Very Short Introduction (New Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2008).

[3]:

D.N Jha, Ancient India in Historical Outline (New Delhi: Manohar Publications, 2020), 67-82.

[4]:

Advaitavadini Kaul, Buddhist Savants of Kashmir and Their Contribution Abroad (Srinagar: Utpal Publication, 1988), 1.

[5]:

J.N Ganhar and P.N Ganhar, Buddhism in Kashmir and Ladakh (New Delhi: P.N Ganhar Publisher, 1956), 23.

[6]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini, Taranga 1, verse 93-94.

[7]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini Taranga 1,verse 98.

[8]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini, Taranga 1, verse 103.

[9]:

Ganhar and Ganhar, Buddhism in Kashmir and Ladakh, 23.

[10]:

Ray, Early History and Culture of Kashmir, 155-156.

[11]:

Hiuen Tsang, Si-Yu-Ki, trans. Samuel Beal, vol.1 (London: Trubner & Co. Ludgate Hill,1884), 149-150.

[12]:

Kaul, Buddhist Savants of Kashmir, 1

[13]:

Ganhar and Ganhar, Buddhism in Kashmir and Ladakh, 16.

[14]:

Tsang, Si-Yu-Ki, 151-156.

[15]:

Mohammad Ajmal Shah, 鈥淭he Fourth Buddhist Council: The world鈥檚 best kept secret,鈥� The Journal of Kashmir Studies 4, no. 1(2012), 116-126.

[16]:

Kaul, Buddhist Savants of Kashmir, 13-55.

[17]:

Gurmat Dorjey, 鈥淏uddhism and Buddhist Scholars of Kashmir,鈥� The Journal of Kashmir Studies 4 , no.1 (2010), 147.

[18]:

Though there is controversy in academia weather it was Maurya Asoka or any local ruler with the same name.

[19]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini, Taranga 1, verse, 103.

[20]:

Tsang, Si Yu Ki, 148-149.

[21]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini, Taranga 1, verse, 124.

[22]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini, Taranga 1, verse 147.

[23]:

See, Rajatarangini, Taranga 1 and Iqbal Ahmad, Kashmir Coins: Ancient Coins of Jammu, Kashmir, Ladakh and its Frontier Districts (Delhi: Dilpreet Publishing house, 2013), 16-20.

[24]:

Advaitavadini Kaul, 鈥淩ole of Kashmiri Scholars in the Growth of Buddhist Philosophy and Religion,鈥� The Journal of Kashmir Studies 4, No.1 (2010), 95.

[25]:

Kaul, Buddhist Savants of Kashmir, 2.

[26]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini, Taranga 1, verse 171.

[27]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini, Taranga 1, verse 173.

[28]:

These are Grammar, Medicine, Esotericism, Arts and Causes respectively.

[29]:

Tsang, Si-Yu-Ki, 151-156.

[30]:

Ganhar and Ganhar, Buddhism in Kashmir and Ladakh, 61-62.

[31]:

S.L Shali, Kashmir: History and Archaeology Through the Ages (New Delhi: Indus Publishing Company, 1993), 122.

[32]:

Abhimanyu I tried to suppress Buddhists and supplied his political patronage to Saivism by establishing temples and giving Agraharas in this regard. King Nara鈥檚 reign was further devastative to Buddhists. He in the hyperbolic language of Kalhana is said to have burnt down one thousand Buddhist Viharas and granted all the villages to Brahmans which were earlier under the Buddhists possession.

[33]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini, Taranga 1, verse 307-16.

[34]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini, Taranga 3, verse 1-100.

[35]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini, Taranga 3, verse 464.

[36]:

Nath, Puranas and Acculturation: A Historico-Anthropological Study, 8.

[37]:

Upinder Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From earliest times up to twelfth century A.D (New Delhi: Pearson, 2008), 512.

[38]:

Nilamatapurana, vol 2, verse 709-710 A.

[39]:

For Comprehensive details see Kaul, Buddhist Savants of Kashmir.