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In the previous chapter, we have come across Rasarnavakalpa, a medieval Sanskrit alchemical text, which 15 304, etc. See Bogar karpam in Primary Sources; Slokas 264,

contains recipes for transmutation of base metals into noble ones and the preparation of mercury elixirs. We have also seen that a close study of the transmutation processes described in Rasarnavakalpa and those in parallel Chinese texts reveal similarities between them. Rasarnavakalpa provides a description of a mineral acid "Vishodaka" in one of its sections, viz. "Visodaka kalpa". After describing the physical and chemical properties, it further discusses the applications of this acid in various processes. A similar description is found in the Rasarnava text also, though some verses are different. The description of Visodaka in both the texts is given below. 16 The twelfth chapter of Rasarnava. (The ocean of mercury) Now I am going to tell you the fixation with the help of the poisonous water. (Visodaka) (212) 16 See Rasarnava in Primary Sources. STEST 9615: 2211019- dvadaha patalah I arthatah sampravaksami visodarasabandhanam visodaka visasamam dhrtavat ca dhrtodakam || 212 || 1 sitapitadi varsavyam tacca devi rasottamam || 213 || 145

The poisonous water is like a poison, just as the oil-water is oily. The one possessing a rich, white and yellow colour is the best for alchemical operations. (213) After going to that forest (where Visodaka is found) chant the prayers "Ghorasahasrakam" (name of a particular prayer). Human hair split when dipped in this water (or incoming light-rays refract in this water and consequently) and our own reflection is not observed in this water. (214) Oil moves round (i.e. does not mix) and ghee glides on its surface (i.e. does not mix). Odour of sulphur is destroyed and salts are converted to acids in this water. ... (215) Collect it in a pan made of the leaves of the tree Palash (Butea Frondosa) and place it inside a hollow of a bitter gourd. sulphur, mercury in it. Also put (216) FN. 16 continued 146 tamtra ganya banode ho smaret ghorasahastrakam | 1 kesah silah sphutanti asmin atmacchaya nasyate || 14 || tailanca golakakaram dhrtancaiva visarpati | gandhakasya haret gandham lavanamlakha jayate || 215 || aphna palasa pajena katu kala buke ksipet | visodakam gandhakam ca haravi jasdha tatsamam 1 216 || ajaksirana pist 鈥�va vu gupyapatrani lepayet | tat pudhena ca devosa ! sinduradana sannibham | 247 || || yana

After grinding (or making into a paste) in goat's milk, coat it on a copper-leaf. This on heating becomes "Sindura" (cinnabar) of the colour resembling the Sun. .. (217) With these methods, lead also turns into "Sindura" (lead oxide). With a thousandth part of it, silver is transmuted. .. (218) .... As the reaction proceeds it (Sindura or lead oxide) changes the colour from red to yellow to black. (219) Place the leaves of Palash tree in an iron lodestone, vessel or in the vessel made of a bitter-gourd and take (Visodaka) in it as before, and wrap the vessel with the leaves of Palash. (220) Place it in the heap of paddy for twenty one days. Put a drop of it (Visodaka) in buffalo's (221) milk. FN. 16 continued anena vidhina devi ! nagam sinduratam vrajet | sahastramsena tasyaiva naram vedham pradapayet || 218 || raktapitam tatha krsnam uttarottara karyakrt || 219 | tripatra kala patre va pajeda lavumacepi va grhitva purvavat pannaih pata saivaistye dvahih | sthapayedyanyaradyau tu divasanekavimgatim | 220 || mahisi ksiramadhye tu bindumekantu sadhayet || 221 || 147

Eat this milk-preparation powdered and mixed with honey and ghee, one lives like a moon. (222) Rub the following the the poisonous water, Gloriosa Superba, Soot, cinnabar, Haridra and Daruharidra (curcuma longa and Berberis Asiatica) Gymnema Sylvestre, Rhus Succedanea, black Dhatura, lead oxide, i.e. minium, pure gold and mercury. O Intelligent one! All this is to be macerated in poisonous water for seven days. (223) Or it is to be macerated till it becomes a powder. Cover molten lead with this powder, the powder should be one sixteenth by weight, of the weight of lead. (224) FN. 16 continued payasam bhaksayedyastu madhyajyena samyutam 1 yavacurnapaka dekhi ! jivettadvindusa 鈥�nkhya 1222 11 lan 鈥�gali grhayumanca sindura rajanidvayam | mesasrmgi ca srva ca krsnonmattam ca marakara savija sutaka scaiva visatoyena marddinam | visatoyena medhavi saptavarasca bhavamera 11 22 3 || athava bhavayetatu yavacurna tu tavat | tena naem prativapya sodasamkona sambhavet || 224 || 148

In the crucible (placed) in a bamboo apparatus, it is heated thrice. Avoid the gases coming out since they cause many body-ailments. (225) Then place lead oxide-minium in the hollow of the bitter gourd and taking one-hundredth part of this powder transmute silver leaves. (226) Take pure poisonous water mixed with ricegruel and sprinkle this upon Vartaloha (i.e. an alloy of gold, silver, copper, tin, lead and iron), it is transmuted to beautiful silver. (227) FN. 16 continued mnakhye venuyako ca trivaramapi bhavayan | | 225 || 1 dhumam pariharet tasya atyadhikaram param sthapaye lagasindura pa啷媎a lavumayepi tatah taccurna tu satamhona tarapatrani vedhayet || 226 || visapaniya adaya thavago varttita subham 1 149 nisiktam tacca varte 'yam taram bhavati sobhanam || 227 || visapaniya adaya pratipeca rasottame | kunati - gandhapasana- vipatani 1

150 Bring Visodaka and put it in good quality mercury. Grind in a mortor with realgar, sulphur, an acid, borax, and Gloriosa Superba till it is thoroughly powdered (into a paste). Apply it over silver foils. When heated in a closed crucible it is converted into impotent gold. (228) visodaka. Thus is the formula for taking Twenty second section of Rasarnava. The above Slokas of Rasarnava are comparable with the ones given below from Rasarnavakalpa. 17 FN. 16 continued 17 nastapisti krtam khadde tarapabani lepayet | andhabhusagata dh 鈥�yanam nirbija kanakam bhavet || 226 | || iti visoda 鈥�ka grahanamantra rasarnavam dvadama palala || " 11 atha visoda 鈥�kakalpah

Now, the section on Poisonous Water. There are three kinds of poisonous waters. They are characterized by their glossy appearance. The colours of the waters are red, yellow and black. These three colours of poisonous water are serially presented in order of degrees of their properties. .. (730) .... Their genuineness is to be proved by observing them as destroyer of an animal, bird and human beings resp. (coming in contact with these kinds of water). The hair and teeth crumble. There occurs no reflection or shadow in this poisonous water. ... (731) It (the poisonous water) contracts nails. Oil loses its fluidity by coming in contact with the poisonous water. The seed unfolds itself (i.e. there is appearance of sprouts). Alkalies begin to move to and fro. (732) ... FN. 17 continued trividham visamaniya tailacchamena laksanam 1 raktam pitam tatha krsnam uttarottara karmasu 11730 || pasupaksi naradhnamcca drstya pratyayamacaret | sphutanti kehadantacca chaya to ye na samyate || 731 || nakhah san 鈥�kucane taba tailam naiva visarpati bijam visrjyate taba ksaram kalakavayate | 1 || 732 || 151

Milk assumes the form of oil, (and) asafoetida emits no odour. It removes the odour of sulphur and destroys the fragrance of musk. ... (733) It is called "Visodaka" (poisonous water) an excellent substance which bestows perfection in all (alchemical undertakings). ... (734) Thus it is to be taken in Palash-leaf and is to be kept in the hollow portion of bitter-gourd. (The juices of) three myrobalans are to be poured there, (after admixing in water with the juices of three myrobalans). This is to be taken out (from the hollow of the bitter gourd) with proper muttering of mystic syllables. .. (738) .... It is to be carefully covered with the leaves of Palasha and taken home where it is to be deposited in the heaps of paddy (for three weeks). (739) FN. 17 continued ksiram tailam bhavat tatra higurgandho na jayate | gandhakasya herad gandham nabhe gandham ca nayati || 733 || nahi sodaka ityahuh sarvasiddhikaram param || 734 1 (Verses 734, lines 2 to 737 contain worship of tutelary god and bija mantras, etc. and are dropped.) evam palasa patrena grahyam vai kat 鈥�vala buke 1 triphala caiva niksipya grahitavyam suma 鈥�tim || 738 || 152

After three weeks from heaps of paddy. poisonous water is to auspicious day. it is to be taken out The preparation with this be undertaken on an The wise . .... (740) should pound the grains of "sasti" variety of paddy with the poisonous water. Mercury and milk of goat are to be mixed with this and pills of one "sana" in weight are to be prepared carefully from this mixture. (741) One pill is to be taken each day along with milk when it will be digested, milk is to be drunk. The diet should be without salt and sour foods. (742) In one month, he who uses it becomes free from wrinkles and grey hair, attains the appearance like that of a sixteen-year-old boy and acquires "dehasiddhi". (743) FN. 17 continued panaih palarajaiscaiva vesthaniyam prayatnatah | svagrhe ca tato nitva dhanyamadhye nidhapayet || 739 11 trisaptaha tadduddhrtya sudine karyamacaret | tenodakena medhavi vesayet banthitandulan || 740 || paradenasamayukta majasirena samyutam | 741 gutikam jnanamatrena karayettu prayatnatah || sada || ekaikam bhaksayanvityam srirena saha samyutam | jirne caiva pibenksiram havanamla vivarjitam || 742 || 153

Equal weights of poisonous water, sulphur and orpiment (Haribija), mixed well with the urine of goat, is to be smeared on copper-leaves. O Goddess! roasted in puta, it becomes gold of heavenly quality. .... (744) Thus the leaves of lead, smeared with the above product and roasted in "puta" are turned into gold which resembles the colour of a cochineal. (745) This "Vishodaka" or "poisonour water", which is described in the above-mentioned verses, is very much like the one supposed to be introduced to China by an Indian scholar in the seventh century AD. This episode of the Indian scholar in the Chinese court is discussed 18 by Needham. He quotes a passage from the book FN. 17 continued ekamasaprayogena vallipalitavarjitah | 18. dvistavarnakrtiko dehasiddhimavapnuyan || 743 1 nibodakam gandhakanca haribijanca tatsama m 1 ajamuge tu salistam sulvapatrani lepayet 174411 putapakana devesi divyam bhavati kancanam | anenaiva vidhanena nagapatrani lepayet | putena jayane svarnam indra gopaka sanniyam 11 745 11 - rasarnanakalpa 'Needham, Joseph (1), vol. 5, Pt. IV, p. 197. 154

19 Yu-Yang za-zu麓 of Duan Qing-Shi 853 AD. 21 20 written in Wang xuan-ce was an ambassador to the court of Magadha in the year 648 AD. He overthrew and captured the usurper king of Magadha and carried him away, along with the other Indian prisoners, to the Chinese court at Chang-an. Among the prisoners was an Indian scholar who knew techniques for the preparation of an elixir for prolonging life. He described certain "Ban cha zhuo shui" or Ban cha zhuo water to the Chinese emperor who was interested in learning such techniques. The physical and chemical properties of this "Ban cha zhuo" water, described in the Chinese text, are: 1. This water displayed several colours. 2. It was sometimes hot and sometimes cold. 19 xi yang za zu 20 21 En sti It ER cheng wang xuan ce 155

156 3. It could dissolve herbs, wood, gold, iron and even human flesh. 4. It was prepared in mountains, in stone vessels and stored in the hollow portion of a bitter gourd. 5. It was used for the preparation of an elixir for prolonging life, since the Indian scholar mentioned this water when he was asked to make such drugs. From the above description Needham concludes "Ban Cha zhuo shui" to be a mineral acid and considers the above passage to be one of the earliest passages on mineral acids. Needham conjectures "Ban cha zhuo shui"22 i.e., "Ban cha zhuo" water (since shui is the word for water in Chinese) as the transliteration of Panjab water. Thus he is suggesting the word "Panca" means five in Sanskrit (Panca + ap = Panjab). However, in this context the word "Panca Visa" seems to be more appropriate, since the water mentioned in the Chinese text was characterised as the one which was able to destroy or dissolve almost all matter and matter was supposed to be made up of different combinations of the five elements. 22 zhi cha qu shui

157 Such water is referred to in ancient Indian texts as "Visodaka" meaning poisonous water, an account of which we have given on previous pages. If the word "udaka" for water in Sanskrit is translated to the Chinese "Shui" for water and the remaining "Panca-visa" is transliterated into Chinese as "Ban cha zhuo" we get the word "Ban cha zhuo shui" which is parallel to "Visodaka" or poisonour water. It is interesting to note that the ninth century Chinese-Sanskrit-Tibetan dictionary gives a Chinese word "23 for "Visoda" (also poisonous water) as "Wei so dan' which is the transliteration of the original word. We have seen in the case of Navasara or Nao sha, that the writers freely chose different characters for transliteration, in different periods. The physical and chemical properties of Visodaka resemble those of Ban cha zhuo shui of the Chinese text, as can be seen below: 1. Visodaka also displayed many colours. Rasarnava Shl. 213, Rasarnavakalpa shl. 730. 23 411 A wei nu dan

158 2. Visodaka is also stored in the hollow portion of a bitter gourd. beings. 3. Rasarnava shl. 216, 220; Rasarnavakalpa shl. 738. It could destroy birds, animals and even human 4. Rasarnavakalpa shl. 731. It is used for the preparation of an elixir for prolonging life. Rasarnava shl. 222, Rasarnavakalpa shl. 743. 5. Further, Visodaka is used in the transmutation processes for making noble metals. Rasarnava shl. 217, 227, 228. Rasarnavakalpa shl. 744-745. Since Visodaka is a very reactive substance, it can be a strong acid or a strong base (alkali). That Visodaka is a mineral acid is supported by the reactions described in the above Slokas. These reactions are discussed here. 1. Milk is curdled by Vishodaka. It is well known that milk is curdled when it becomes acidic by adding substances like lemon juice or vinegar (i.e., citric and acetic acid, respectively). Whereas when a basic substance is added to it, milk does not curdle. Rasarnavakalpa shl. 733

2. Alkali reacts with it vigorously making a noise; hence, Visodaka must be an acid. Since alkali would not react with another alkali vigorously. Rasarnavakalpa shl. 732 3. No reaction occurs when Visodaka is added to oil, but only separate layers are obtained due to insolubility. If Vishodaka were an alkali, it would readily react with oil resulting in saponification of the oil. Rasarnava shl. 215 159 4. Natural salt is converted into an acidic + substance. Any salt solution will have more H ions after adding an acid to it, and will become more acidic. Rasarnava shl. 215 5. Visodaka was used to increase the reactivity of mercury. Rasarnava shl. 223 Incidentally, the use of different kinds of Visas and upvisas (strong and mild poisons, i.e., acids) in mercurial preparations with the aim of obtaining mercury in a more reactive form was well known to Indian alchemists and is noticed in Rasayana texts. 24 24 Satyaprakash, see Secondary Sources, p. 257.

160 The transmutation and elixir-preparation methods which are described in Rasarnava and Rasarnavakalpa will give some idea as to what kind of knowledge and techniques were supposed to be known. It will also tell us which methods the Chinese emperor of the seventh century AD might have tried, since "Ban cha zhuo shui" or Visodaka were either the same substance or very close to each other in their physical and chemical properties. Transmutation processes carried out with Visodaka are: 1. Yellow copper sulphide film-formation on copper. Rasarnava shl. 217, Rasarnavakalpa shl. 744 2. Formation of gold-coloured amalgam of silver. 3. Rasarnava shl. 228 Transmutation of Vartaloha, an alloy of iron, copper, lead, tin and zinc to silver. Rasarnava shl. 227 (Probably mercury was also added, forming a silvercoloured amalgam.) Visodaka must have been applied in various other preparations apart from transmuting metals, to obtain their soluble salts, since the Indian scholar in the

161 Chinese court knew that "Ban cha zhuo" water could dissolve iron and gold. An oxidation of lead to litharge was achieved with the help of Visodaka. Rasarnava shl. 218 Rasarnavakalpa shl. 745 Elixir-syntheses using Visodaka are given in the following verses: Rasarnavakalpa shl. 740-743 and Rasarnava shl. 221, 222. While reading about the "Poisonous water", i.e., Visodaka and its destroying properties, one doubt comes to our minds, as to why the Chinese emperor would try an elixir from a liquid called "Poisonous water". Moreover, when the Indian scholar described it as capable of destroying herbs, wood, gold, iron and even human flesh. We find the answer in the philosophy behind the elixir-preparations, prevalent in medieval times. An eighth century Chinese alchemist, Zhang Yin-ju, 26 in his book Zhang-zhen-Fen jin-shi-ling-sha lun (A 25zhang zhi ju 26 zhang zhen ren jin shi sha lun 25

162 discourse on metals, minerals and cinnabar, by the adept zhang), writes: 27 Gold, the essence of sun and mercury the po soul of the moon, when they are combined and absorbed into man's body he cannot die. . Nevertheless gold by itself is poisonous, because of its accumulation of the "qi" of Tai-Yang (sun), if native gold is made into a powder and consumed it will have deleterious effect on bone and marrow and will cause death. Gold has to be combined with mercury before it can be taken, in order to achieve immortality because, mercury is the essence of Tai-Yin (moon) and the po soul of the moon. It is apparent from such writings that the idea of the medieval Chinese alchemist was that, though the individual ingredient of an elixir might be poisonous, the right proportion and right methods can make it not only lose its bad effects but also it will be useful for achieving rejuvenation and immortality. Similar ideas were prevalent in medieval India. Mercury was extensively used in medicines as well as in elixir syntheses. One finds in Ayurvedic texts that purification of mercury was an essential step. Impure mercury was known to give rise to innumerable diseases. Mercury containing Visa (Poison), Vahni (fire) and mala (impurities of other minerals and metals) when consumed, 27, Needham, Joseph (1), Vol. 5, Pt. 3, p. 143.

163 was known to lead to diseases like stomach disorders and leprosy. 28 In the text Rasarnava, the author at one place cautions the practitioner to avoid the smoke coming out of the reaction vessel, since they would cause many diseases or body ailments. (See Rasarnava shl. 225.) As late as the fifteenth century AD Paracelsus writes, "Poisonous action and remedial virtue are intimately bound up together." Thus, there is little wonder that the Chinese emperor of the seventh century AD encouraged the synthesis of an elixir with Visodaka or poisonous water. In the long history of metallic-mineral elixirs, we find that their poisonous effects were known and they could not 30, 31. 28. Rasarnava, see primary sources, p. 64, sh 1. 1 srrnu devi pravasami karmmayogasya vistaram | paradasya trayo dosah visam vai啶縨elastatha || 30 || visena savisam vidhat vahanau kusthi bhavennarah | malenodara rogi sthat mriyate ca rasayane || a | ||

164 distract men desirous of immortality, because these effects, sometimes fatal, were attributed to the impurities in the ingredients, wrong or imperfect methods or selfish intentions of the experimentalist. The alchemists continued with their experiments, discovering many new chemicals and methods which helped the further progress of alchemy and chemistry. This episode of the Indian scholar in the Chinese court in the seventh century AD suggests the fact that chemically highly reactive substances like mineral acids were discovered in India at that early date. Moreover, that this knowledge regarding mineral acids was transmitted to China. Earlier it was believed that the Indians did not possess the knowledge of mineral acids for dissolving metals before the sixteenth century AD. Priyadanandan 29 Ray writes, The distillation of alum is referred to in Rasarnava, and of green vitriol in Rasaratnacamuccaya. We have, however, no evidence that the acid thus derived was ever used as a solvent. At the same time, it might be pointed out that Rasarnava and similar other works lay stress upon "vida", in which aqua regia may be said to be potentially present, and which is fitly described as capable of killing all the metals. The preparation of mineral acids is described in several exclusively 29 Ray, P. (1), see Secondary Sources, p. 229.

165 medical works, composed probably in the sixteenth and the seventeenth centuries e.g. Rasakaumudi by Madhava, Rasaratnapradipa and Bhaishajyaratnavali by Govindadasa etc. 30 Let us see what Needham' comments about the knowledge of the Indians, of mineral acids, after describing the above episode of the seventh century scholar in the Chinese court. One of the best things about this account is its date, which is very firm. Foreshadowing perhaps the later "alkahest" or universal sovlent of Paracelsian iatro-chemistry this passage suggests at any rate that a mineral acid was known in the seventh century AD. It gives some colour to the hints about strong acids in Ray's history of chemistry in India. Already in the 11 th century AD the Rasarnavakalpa has much on the "fixation" or "killing" of metals. The Rasarnava Tantra (dated by Ranou and Filliozat as of the 12 th century AD) speaks of the "killing of iron and other metals by a vida (solvent?) which is prepared from green vitriol (kasisa), pyrites etc. From the Rasaratnasamuccaya (compiled according to Renou and Filliozat about 1300 AD) which reproduces material from the "Rasendra-chudamani" of somadeva (12 th or 13 th century AD) the process of "killing" certainly seems to be the formation of salts from metals. Neogi drew attention long ago to the apparent presence of oil of vitriol in the later Indian alchemical treatises under the name "essence of alum", produced by distillation. This is certainly mentioned in the "Rasaratnasamuccaya" and in the Rasaprakashsudhakara of Yasodhara (13 th century AD), though they do not distinctly say that the alum and the ferrous 30. Needham, Joseph (1), Vol. 5, Pt. IV, p. 198.

166 sulphate must be distilled together; but neither of these works would be older than the time of Geber in the West. Thus, we see that the above-mentioned episode of the Indian scholar in the Chinese court in the seventh century AD hints to the knowledge of the Indians of mineral acids in the early medieval period. Furthermore, by recognising "Ban cha zhuo shui" as Visodaka we now know the physical and chemical properties of the above acid and also its applications in alchemical operations, in getting various metals in their solution form (i.e., formation of soluble salts of various metals). This episode, if true, throws more light on the knowledge of mineral acids of the seventh century Indian alchemists. We have seen in Priyadanandan Ray and Needham's comments that, according to experts (like Renou, 31 Filliozat, Ray and also Roy and Subbarayappa ³1), Rasarnava and Rasarnavakalpa are the texts of the eleventh and twelfth centuries AD. Again identification of "Ban cha zhuo shui" with Vishodaka confirms that the contents of the above texts, at least partly, might have been known to the Indians as early as the seventh century AD. Thus, it contradicts the earlier belief that the 31 p. 2. Roy and Subbarayappa (1), see Introduction part,

167 Indians did not possess the knowledge of the use of mineral acids for dissolving metals before the sixteenth century AD. (Indians knew that metals could be dissolved using naturally occurring mineral acids like Visodaka which contradicts Ray's comment.) The verse in Rasaratnasamuccaya which gives the preparation of "essence of alum" or sulphuric acid is given below. 32 Tuvari or alum is purified when immersed in kanjika (or the fermented rice water or crude vinegar) for three days. It (alum) when rubbed with ksaramla (acidic salt) and heated certainly gives its essence. Here, instead of clearly specifying the name of If we the salt, the author just calls it acidic salt. recognise the salt with ferrous sulphate (kasisa), then In the very the one given above is the required recipe. next verse the author cautions the reader that this one is an important synthesis and hence should be kept secret. Probably this is the reason why he does not specify the "acidic salt" to be used in the above method. 32. Rasaratnasamuccaya see Primary Sources, Section 3, Sloka 64. tuvari kambike siptva tridi 鈥�nacchuddhimucati | ksaramthaih mardita dhyata satvam muncati niscitam || 64 ||