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CHAPTER VI LITERATURE ( Poetics and Dramaturgy ) The illustrious sage Bharata, the author of Natya sastra, the first systematic treatise on dramaturgy, has glorified all the fine arts. Not only he has raised fine arts like music, dance, and drama to the status of Vedic verses but he has gone to the length of saying that the innumerable baths in sacred rivers, all sorts of rituals and a thousand chantings of religious Mantras can never possess the high glory that these fine arts claim. In this connection, he has cited the authority of none else but the highest God Lord Siva.1 2 Sahitya (Literature) which includes poetry and drama is recognised to be the supreme art according to the Indian tradition. Rajasekhara, in his Kavyamimamsa, has mentioned Sahityavidya as the fifth vidya. Artistic and beautiful expressions, imaginative power or fancy, and expression of emotions have distinguished the Sahitya from other sciences. This art of literature was fully developed in ancient India. The highest perfection of human society has always corresponded with the highest excellence of poetry and drama. Vatsyayana in his Kamasutra, has given an elaborate description of the life of a cultured citizen (Nagaraka). In the domestic life of the citizen in ancient India, fine arts like poetry and drama, music-vocal and instrumental-, and dance occupied

- 288 a position of high importance. The society of that bygone era desired to enjoy the varied and rich life in a balanced manner and to make human life cherishable in every way. Naturally in such a society all the arts must have occupied a place of honour. Poetry and drama cannot be assiduously developed unless people possess in a large measure the capacity to appreciate aesthetic beauty. In the cultured society in ancient India there were assemblies or gatherings of people who had an insight into the various arts and who could appreciate the finer points relating to the individual arts. Such assemblies were called 'Vidagdha Gosthis' and in these assemblies poetry was recited and it was even criticised. There were intelligent discussions about the subtleties of poetic charm. We need not wonder that the life of the cultured citizen in ancient India had a great share in shaping poetic trends and dramatic literature. Along with the cultured citizen taking delight in poetic beauties and the royal patron who rewarded the poets, there was another and very important class of the connoisseurs or the literary critics, the 'sarhdayas'. They insisted upon intense aesthetic experience as the sole criterian of the excellence of poetry and drama. The two great epics of India, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata represent the ideal of classical literature. Ramayana is the work of a great artist. The literary embellishment and the poetic expression anticipate the

- 289 excellence of later classical literature. The content of the Mahabharata afforded later poets an inexhaustible material for their literary achievement. Even in the Vedic literature, particularly in the Rgveda we find the seeds of poetic charm. Many of the hymns, particularly the Usas-Suktas exhibit fine specimens of poetry. The verses contain ornaments like Upama, Utpreksa, Slesa and Atisayokti. But Asvaghosa (1 st Cen. A.D.) is recognised as the first great Kavya poet whose poetic inspiration was remarkable. His successor Kalidasa is the great, the supreme poet of aesthetic beauty, and of sensuous emotion. He was the master of sound and language. The 'Kavikulaguru' Kalidas, is regarded as the 'Kavitakaminivilasa'. He has described the infinite magnitude of drama in his play 'Malavikagnimitra' Kalidasa even goes to the length of characterising drama as the beautiful sacrifice of the gods which presents itself to our visual perception ('Kanta Caksusa Kratu') 3 Drama is the highest of all forms of poetry. Dr. Keith rightly says, that "Sanskrit drama may be regarded as the highest product of Indian poetry"." Vamana, the well - 4 known rhetorician also glorifies the art of drama and states that drama is the most excellent of all the forms of literature. 5 It is natural that such an excellent art was regarded

290 as the fifth Veda. Bharata, in the very beginning of his Natya sastra describes the divine origin of drama. He recognises Brahma to be the originator of drama, and Mahesvara to be the originator of dance. Indra and other gods requested Brahma to create a fifth Veda accessible to all classes of people, and Brahma composed the Natyaveda. From the Rgveda he extracted the requisite words, from the Samaveda the portion relating to music and songs, from the Yajurveda the quality of acting, and from the Atharva Veda the element of Rasas. Drama is the many-sided mirror which collects the brightest rays of human nature and conduct. According to Bharata, Natya is 'Lokavrttanukarana'. It is the imitation (Anukrti) of human behaviour.6 He further says that every thing beautiful under the sun can find a place in drama. 7 The function of the drama according to Bharata, is mainly the aesthetic pleasure, the amusement or entertain ment and also the consolation of mind. 8 Naturally there is nothing surprising if such an art arose at the beginning of human society. In early Vedic literature we do not find references to the dramatic art. But scholars find the earliest manifestation of a ritual drama in the dialogue hymns of the Rgveda. These hymns, no doubt, present the earliest form of dramatic literature. The most important among such hymns is that which consists of the dialogue between Pururavas and Urvasi. This myth of love is

291 given a glorified and immortal dramatic form by Kalidasa in his Vikramorvasiya. There are also other fine dialogues in the Rgveda such as a dialogue between Yama and Yami, Sarama and Pani etc. 9 The great epics of India, the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, also cannot be said to have known the drama proper, there is evidence of the strong influence on the development of the drama exercised by the recitation of the epics. There are also references to the puppet play and the shadow play in the Mahabharata. Its very name Puttalika or Putrika implies that it is only an imitation. It suggested the name of the Sutradhara, Sthapaka which later passed over to the drama. 10 11 Panini refers to the two Sutras - Natasutra and the Bhiksu-sutra. Panini is the first to use the term Nata. Panini dates back to atleast 8 th century B. C. and Patanjali to the 2 nd century B.C. We have in the Mahabhasya of Patanjali the evidence of a stage in which all the elements of drama were present and we may accept its existence in primitive form. 12 But definite evidence of the early history of drama cannot be traced. That is why Asvaghosa is regarded as the earliest dramatist of India belonging to the early Kusana period. In ancient India where flourished such great poets

292 d like Kalidas, Bhavabhuti and other, it is but natural that intelligent and 'Vyutpanna' poeticians or rhetoricians also prospered. The rules for the technique of poetry and arama were evolved and they were supported by the connoisseurs. These rules were highly beneficial for the creation of aesthetic pleasure. Sanskrt drama contains everything that heightens 'Sobha' or aesthetic beauty. Hence it was characterised by sweet musical tunes and graceful dances. But the song, the dance, beautiful spectacle, drapery etc. though in themselves very charming, were intended by Bharata to be mere accessories. The main thing was the aesthetic experience (Rasasvada) and all these things were mere divices to bring out that experience and to heighten it. It is the very soul of poetry and drama. The evoking of sentiment, therefore, is considered to be the most vital function of Sanskrt poetry and drama. This over-emphasis on impersonalised poetic sentiment and its idealised enjoyment tends to encourage grace, polish, and fastidious technical finish. Except in a poet like Bhavabhuti, the tendency is more towards the ornate and the refined. Naturally it is sometimes urged that the Sanskrt poetry and drama are conventional. Sanskrt poetry and drama are no doubt conventional. But such conventions we find in every literature of ancient times, be it Greek or Latin. It

293 is, these very conventions that are the life-blood of the literature of the past ages. Sanskrt drama is bound by a number of strict rules but is rich in art and skill. The dramatist must adhere strictly to the regulations laid down by the Natya sastra. It is only the crude imitator that distorts the unsullied vision that the masters had. In the hands of such crude imitators poetry becomes stylised and rigid. But in the hands of the masters like Kalidasa these very conventions are turned to artistic use. According to the Sanskrt poets and theorists true poetry must fulfil the requirements of 'qualities', of 'ornaments', of particular arrangements of words to suggest a sense or sentiment. So the demand that is made of the poet is that he must possess poetic intuition (Pratibha) aided by Vyutpatti (study) and Abhyasa (practice). The attention of the earlier writers on 'Sahitya - 'sastra' was first drawn principally to the subject of style. It is naturally associated with Gunas (excellences) and Dosas (defects). Some emphasized the importance of figures of speech while others emphasized the importance of strikingness (Vakrokti). Dhvanikara and Anandavardhana considered the problem of literary emotion and regarded it as the most essential desideratum in literature.