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[Full title: The Architectural Form traced traced to the Canonical Sources鈥擳he Nagara Type]

Brihatsamhita. 110 gives the names of proportionate measurement and enumerates 20 forms based on different shapes of the temple. 106. Architectural Antiquities of Northern Gujarat Pit. LXXXVIII. 107. Somanatha and other Medieval Temples of Kathiawad Plt. LXXI. 108. Antiquities of Kaccha and Kathiawada Plts. XXXVIII and XXXIV; Here Figs. 118 & 232. Dr. H. D. Sankalia has enlisted the Temple of Kanoda (Archaeology of Gujarat p. 77) in the group. In support of his enumeration he relies the existance of three porches attached to the mandapa (Ag. p. 82) but from the plan given by Burgess (Architectural Antiquities of Northern Gujarat XLI) it seems that it was a one-shrined temple with a mandapa which had three porches, each on each side. 109. For detail Vide Appendix 'A' below. 110. BrIhat Samhita LVII; 17-31.

308 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Matsya Purana refers to a general classification of temples into three types Jyestha, Madhya and Kanistha-according to the difference between the sizes of the temples and Lingas.111 It also describes 20 kinds of varieties of temples and enumerates their corresponding names. 112 They are similar to those enumerated by BrIhat Samhita The Bhavisya Purana 11 s strickly follows the types of temples discussed by Matsya Purana. Agni Purana divides temples into five classes according to the different shapes of the ground plan and subdivides each class into nine varieties, the grand total of the varieties being ultimately 45. After enumerating the corresponding names of the types the work states that these names apply to Lata and others. Garuda Purana 115 follows the scheme given by Agni Purana with slight differences in certain names of the types of the temples. Visnudharmottara Purana 116 enumerates as many as 101 types of temples, 100 in adhyaya 86 and one Sarvotobhadra in ad. 87. The first variety namely Himavata seems to be the main type of which the remaining 99 are variations. Visvakarma prakasa enumerates 20 types of temples. 117 111. Meter P. CCLXIX. 26. 112. They are - Meru, Mandara, Kailasa, Kumbha, Simha, Mrga, VimanaChhandaka, Catursra, Astasra, Sodasra, Vartula, Sarvabhadraka, Simhasya, Nandana, Nandivardhan, Hansa, Vrsa, Suvarnesa, Padmaka, and Samudgaka. Ibid. 27-30. 113. Bhavisya Purana CXXX. 25-35. 114. Agni Purana CIV. 11-22; Vide Table 'A' below. 115. G. P. XLVII, 21-32. 116. VD. P. Pt. III, LXXXVI, LXXXVII, LXXXVIII. 117. Vishvakarma Prakasha Vedic Index; 82-84.

The Architectural Forms of Temples B Puspaka . TABLE "A" The 45 temples derived from the five shapes according to Agni Purana (CIV. 11-12 ) and Garuda Purana (I. XLVII, 21 .ff ). A Vairaja C Kailasa E Trivistapa D Manika (Caturasara- (Ayatasra- (Vrtta-Circular) (Vrttayata- (Astasra-Octagonal) Square), -Rectangular) Elliptical) Valabhi Valaya *Gaja Vajra Grharaja Dundubhai Vrsabha 309 *Meru *Mandara *Vimana (Bhadra (ka) *Sarvatobhadra Caruka (G. P. Rucaka) Nandanika (G P. Nandana) Nandivardhana Srivatsa Salagraha Brahma-mandira (G. P. Mandira) Visala (G. P. Vimana) Prabhava *Sama (G. P. Uttamaha) Sivika-Vesma (G. P. Slbika-Vesma). Bhavana (Bhuvana) Padma Maha-Padma. Vardhani (G P. Mukuli) Usnisi. Sankha Kalasa Sri Vrksa *Hamsa Garutmana (G. P. Garuda)* Bhusana (G. P. Simha)* Bhudhara Cakra Svastika (G. P. Mustika) Khadga (G. P. Vakra) Gada Vajra-svastika (G. P. Bhumukha) Vijaya Srijaya Citra (G. P. Guva- Vrksa). Prthvidhara Rksanayaka Srikantha (G. P. Srivrksa) Note:-1. Groups A, B; C, D, and E have been traditionaly dedicated to Brhama, Kubera, Siva, Varuna and Indra respectively. 2. It is interesting to note here that on comparing the list of the twenty temples given in the Brhtsamhita. Meter P. and Vis. P. with the list given above we find that twelve of the twenty names occur among those given in Agni Purana and Garuda P. These names are marked with an asterisk in the Table given above. 3. Visvakarma prakasa narrates Padma as Padmaka, Garuda as Suparna and Mrga as Mrgaraja,

310 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The Samarangana Sutradhara deals with ten types of groups of temples under the head of (1) Rucakadi (Chadya prasada) (XLIX), (2) Mervadi (LV) (3) Rucakadi (sikharanvita) (LVI), (4) Sridharadi (LVII), (5) Vimanadi (LVIII, LIX), (6) Srikutadi (LX), (7), Dravida (LXII), (8) Nagara (LXIII), (9) Digbhadradi (Vavata) (LXIV), (10) Bhumija (LXV). The first type Rucakadi (Chadya prasada) is described as having flat-roofed superstructure and it resolves into five shapes (Vairaja etc.) of ground plans. It is sub-divided into 64 varieties in all. The second type Marvadi has 16 varieties. The third type i. e. Rucakadi (sikharanvita) as indicated by its name is adorned with spire. It is divided into four classes (Lalita, Misraka, Sandhara and Nigudha) which are subdivided into 64 varieties in all. The fourth type Sridharadi resolves into two groups (Sridharadi 118 and Nandanadi) having 50 varieties in all. The fifth type Vimanadi has 8 sub groups (alloted to Siva, Visnu, Brahma, Surya, Candika, Vinayaka, Laksmi and all deities) which are sub-divided into 64 varieties. The sixth type Srikutadi has 36 varieties in all. Temples of this type are here intoduced as constructions of the Nagara style. The seventh type Dravida has 22 varieties of temples, 12 being based according to the number of storeys they have; the 5 based on moulding of pitha and again 5 on five-fold talachanda i. e. the shape of the ground plan. The eighth type Nagara has 20 varieties of temples which strickly correspond to those given by BrIhat Samhita; Meter P. and V. K. P. The ninth type Digbhadradi (Vavata) has 12 varieties of temples and the last tenth type has three sub-groups (Nisadha, Vrksajati and Astasala) sub-divided into 16 varieties in all. Thus Samarangana Sutradhara has prescribed in all 364 varieties of temples 119 118. The subgroup Sridhara has 40 types of temples out of which 9, 65 and 20 are said to be favourite to Bhagavati, Siva, Brahma and Visnu respectively. 119 Vide table 'B' below.

The Architectural Forms of Temples (1) Rucakadi (Chadya) (XLIX). TABLE "B" Temple Classification of Samarangana Sutradhara (2) Mervadi (LV) (16) : Vairaja Kailasa Puspaka Manika Trivistapa (24) (10) (10) (10) (10) (4) Sridharadi ( LVII) Nandana etc (10) (7) Dravida (LXII ) (22) Sandhara Nigudha (25) (5) Sridharadi (40) (3) Rucakadi (Sikhara ) ( XLIX) Lalita (25) Misraka (9) (5) Vimanadi ( LVII ), ( LIX ) (64) Nagara (LXIII ) (20 (6) Srikutadi (LX) (36) (9) Digbhadradi ( Vavata ) ( LXIV) (12) (10) Bhumija ( LXV) =364 (16) 311

312 The Structural Temples of Gujarat It is here that we first come across the terms Nagara and Dravida in the texts on Vastuvidya pertaining to Northern school of Indian architecture. The classification of temples into Nagara, Dravida & Vesara is a late innovation. According to Silpa texts square temples alone were not Nagara temples. Nagara temples admit all possible and prevalent shapes rectangular, oval, hexagonal, octagonal etc. Similarly it can be said that the circular ones alone were not Vesara temples and that the six-sided or octagonal temples alone were not Dravida temples. Therefore, it would not be unjustified to say that this classification of Nagara etc, does not primarily take the shape of temples as the criterian of classification. We have seen that early sources do not classify temples into Nagara, Dravida etc. But it should be taken into account that the early 20 temples narrated in BrIhat Samhita, and Meter P, (approx. 6 th Cent. A. D.) have all been treated in the later work Samarangana Sutradhara (11 th Cent.) as Nagara Prasada (Samarangana Sutradhara LXIII, 1-4) and they are distinguished by the same text, from Dravida (Samarangana Sutradhara LXI, LXII) and the Vavata (LXIV). Thus Nagara as a style of temple architecture was a later criterian of classification. By the time of Samarangana Sutradhara however, it has attained universal recognition. Dravida Form the perusal of the contents of the Sm, Su. (LXI, LXII) and other Silpa texts mostly those belonging to the South Indian group, 120 however, it follows, that if one were to 120. The classifications of types of temple are also dealt with by the works, mainly dealing with the system of architecture, prevalent in Southern India. Manasara, Kamikagama, Suprebhedagama and Isangurudevapaddhati have discussed the various types of temples. The list in Manasara contains under twelve classes (or storeys) 98 types of temple, Kamikagama deals under three main styles Nagara, Dravida, Vesara-20 types, similarly Suprabhedagama also deals with the three styles, which comprise 10 types of temple. Sukraniti has discussed types of temple based on the shape of the ground plans as well on the number of storeyes that they take.

The Architectural Forms of temples 313 varify the texts within reference to existing monuments, the Dravidian temples are not hexagonal or octagonal in ground plan. This supports our contention that the shape ( or geographical regions) are not the criterian of different modes of expression. From the exisiting monuments it can be derived that the Dravida temples are the: square temples surmounted by a Sikhara which are divided into compartments like storeys, on the top of which are two kinds of crowing pieces, one like that on the Shore Temple at Mamalapuram, and the other like the one in Ganesa Ratha of that place. All the manuals on Vastu-Sastra especially those belonging to the Maya school or Dravida School, describe temple divisons on the basis of the storeys in the Sikharas which might be 12 (or 12 to 17) in number. The crowning peice is called the Stupi with Kalasa. The Samarangana Sutradhara in this respect has exactly followed the Southern text and so its representation pertaining to this style is quite fitting to the existing monuments of South. The Aparajitapraccha divides temples into two main groups 121 (a) those belonging to Sudhachanda comprising eight varieties 122 viz., (1) Nagara (2) Dravida (3) Varata (4) Misraka (5) Latina (6) Sandhara (7) Vimana (8) Bhumija 121 Aparajitapriccha Cill, 1-3, CXII. 2-3, 13-15. 122. Aparajitapriccha CLV, CLVII,

314 The Structural Temples of Gujarat and (b) six varieties based on their special features like Desa (country), Jati (Community), Kula (family), Sthana (place) and Varna (colour). They are: (1) Valabhi (or trisangnaka). (2) Simhavalokana. (3) Phasanakara (or Napumsaka ) (4) Daruja (5) Vimana Nagara (6) Vimanapuspaka The first type Nagara is further divided into six varieties (1) Vairaja etc.122 (which comprises five-fold shapes or ground plans) (2) Puranabhadra etc. 123 (3) Bhudhara 124 (4) Surataru Bhudhara 124 etc. 125 (5) Sagaratilaka etc. 126 and (6) Meru etc., 127 each variety contains 53, 25, 25, 25, 41 sub-varieties respectively. The second type Dravida 128 is divided into temples having several Bhumikas; in all it comprises 25 varieties of temples. The Latina 129 type adopts the five-fold divisions of the shape of the plan and comprises in all 25 varieties of temples. The Misraka, 180 too, has three divisions (Rucakodbhava, Sridhara etc, and Sritilakodbhava comprising 25 verieties in all. 122. Aparajitapriccha CLV, CLVI, CLVII, 123. Aparajitapriccha CLXIV. 124. Aparajitapriccha CLXV. 125. Aparajitapriccha CLXVI 127. Aparajitapriccha CLXVII, CLXX. 128. Aparajitapriccha CLXXIV. 129. Aparajitapriccha CLVIII. 130. Aparajitapriccha CLXVIII 路 126. Aparajitapriccha CLXIX.

The Architectural Forms of Temples 315 The Vimana 131 type has two sub-groups, one based on the number of bhumikas containing 25 verieties in all. The other subgroup (pertaining to various gods-goddesses like Siva, Visnu, Brahma, Surya Devi, Ganapati, Tirthankara, and Sarva Deva, each ascribed with 8 varieties of temples). contains 64 varieties of temples. Thus this type contains 89 varieties in all. The Bhumija 132 type of temples is divided into three groups (Catursra, Vrtta, Astasra, all based on the shape of the ground plan and admit the several numbers of storeyes in elevation). In all, it has 25 varieties of temples. the The Sandhara, 133 the Varata, 134 the Valabhi, 135 Simhavalokan 136 each of these types contains 25 varieties of temples. The Phasanakara 137 type of temples is based again on the several shapes of the ground plan and storeyes in elevation. In all it has 20 verieties of temples, The particulars of Daruja type are missing in the text. The Vimananagara 138 type has three groups (Puspaka etc. Sridhadra etc. and Meru), subdivided into 76 varieties in all. The last type Vimana puspaka 139 has 25 varieties of temples of which the last one namely Meru forms a class by itself. Thus Aparajitapriccha mentions 453 verieties in all. 140 131. Aparajitapriccha CLXII, CLXIX. 135. Aparajitapriccha CLXXVI 132 Aparajitapriccha CLXXI. 136 Aparajitapriccha CLXXVII. 133 Aparajitapriccha CLIX. 137. Aparajitapriccha CLXXVIII 134. Aparajitapriccha CLXXV. 138. Aparajitapriccha CLXII, CLXIII, CLXXX, CLXXXI, CLXXXII. 139. Aparajitapriccha CLX. 140. Vide Table 'C' below.

(1) Nagara. TABLE 'C' Temple Classification of Appr. : 316 918 The Structural Temples of Gujarat : : Vairaja etc. (53) Purnabhadra etc. (25) Bhudara etc. Surataru etc. (25) (25) Sagaratilaka etc. (25) Meru etc. (25) (2) Dravida. (25) Rucakodabhava. (3) Latina (4) Misraka (5) Vimana. (25) : Sridhara Sritilakodbhava. (9) (10) (6) Based on Bhumika (25) : (6) Bhumija. (7) (8) Sandhara (25) (25) Varata (25) (11) (12) (13) Phasanakara. Daruja Vimananagara. (9) Valabhi (25) (14) dedicated to god & goddesses : (10) Simhavalokana. (25) Vimanapuspaka. (64) : Puspaka Sribhadra. Meru (25) (40) (11) =453

The Architectural Forms of Temples 317 in Further Aparajitapriccha also gives particulars about the different regions where the different types of temples were especially prevalent. The Nagara type for instance was common Ahiraja (i. e. Ahichhatra) Vairajya, Virata, Kokana, Dandkarnya and Sanhyadri. The work also cites the types that were especially in vogue in Saurastra and Gurjaradesa, but unfortunately the line mentioning these types is missing in the text.141 In Aparajitapriccha the Nagara type figures as the first and foremost type of temples. It describes the salient features of this type as follows. The spire of the Nagara temple is adorned with Srngas, Urusrngas, Pratyangas etc. It is constructed of profile ( Rekha) of one to three divisions (Khandas). It has Sukanasa, Amalaka, Kalasa and Andaka Its' ground plan is adorned with various projections running vertically and horizontally from top to bottom. Its vertical member are Pitha, Uppitha, Jangha (Mandovara) Kutachadya etc. It has Mandapa, Vitana (ceilings) adorned with bell-shaped Samvarna (or Samarana )142 From the description of twenty temples in Brht. Sam., 143. Meter P. 144 and Visva Karma Prakasa 145 (the works approx. of 6 th Cent. A. D.) etc., it seems that the temples have assumed various forms by this time, None of these works however refers to the Nagara School of architecture, which is found to be one of the principal schools in later canonical works. It is in the Agni Purana 146 that 141. Aparajitapriccha CXII, 12. Shri P. A. Mankad the editor of Aparajitapriccha contends that the Nagara type originated in Ahichhatra in Pancala and that it extended southword along with the migration of the Brhamanas of Pancala, who are known as Nagaras (Appr Int. pp. XXIII-XXVI). 142. Aparajitapriccha CVI, 18-25. 143. BrIhat Samhita LVII, 17-31. 146. Archaeology of Gujarat P. CIV. 11-12. 144. Matsy Purana CCLXIX. 26. 145. Vishvakarma Prakasha Vedic Index, 82-86.

318 The Structural Temples of Gujarat we come across an implied reference to the Nagara school when it associates the 45 varieties (expressly styled as Lata) with Nagara (ctiy). It seems probable that architecture attain a special form accordingly got known as Nagara in course of time. Agni Purana further states that the 45 enumerated by it belongs to Lata (style) probably based on regional conception of temple building activities. verieties of temples The Samarangana Sutradhara is supposed to represent the canons of the Lata school. It represents temples into several groups such as Rucakadi, Sridharadi, Dravida, Nagara, Bhumija etc., Dr. D. N. Shukla classifies the first five groups under the early and later Lata styles. He has grouped the classification of the temples into five groups.-Early Lata style, Later Lata style, Nagara style, Dravidian style, and Regional styles.147 The classification of temples, here seems to have been mostly based on the shapes of the ground plans, superstructures with or without storeys, Sikharas, Sringas and urusrings and with five-fold terraces etc. Early Lata is further divided by him into three types-The Chadya Prasaada 148 (the roofed-temples), temples having Sikhara 149 and superstructure with superstructure with storeys. 150 Later Lata style, an ornamental style having sringas and storeys, comprises four sub-types Meru etc. with 16 & 20 varieties, Sridhara etc. with 40 and Nandan etc. with 10 varieties, 151 Nagara style supplies the traditional list found in two sub-groups (i) Meru and others 18 same as discussed in early 147. Dr. D. N. Shukla. Vastusastra Vol. I. (with special reference to Samarangana Sutradhara ) pp. 443. ff. 148. Ibid. Ch. XLIX. 149. lbid. Ch. LI, LVI 150. Ibid. Ch. LVIII, LIX. 151. Sm Su. Ch. LV, LVII. 152. lbid. LXIII.

The Architectural Forms of Temples 319 texts like Matsya P. and Visvakarma Prakasa etc. and (ii) Srikuta etc. 36 Prasadas. 153 Dravidian style has one to twelve storeys with five fold terraces and talacchandas. 154 The regional styles with characteristics of both Nagara and Dravida have two types-Vavata (Vairata ) 155 and Bhumija 156 The classification presented by Dr. Shukla seems to be elucidative to a larger extent, however, the appellation 'Lata' is not given in the original text and hence his application of this appellation seems to be arbitrary. He also assumes that Lata style was a branch of the Nagara style which was universal. As pointed out by Dr. T. Battacharya the Samarangana Sutradhara is definately the work of the Lata school which was in vogue in Western India. Sm, Su. has developed the 45 varieties of temples into 64 giving prominance to the Vairaja ( square ) type having 24 sub-types of temples. Samarangana Sutradhara treats 20 varieties of temples enumerated by early works like BrIhat Samhita , Matsy Purana & Vishvakarma Prakasha in a separate chapter (vide LXIII) under the head of the Nagara type because they were perhaps considered as traditional type of temples during the period of its composition. The Agni Purana, the Haya Sirsapancaratram 158 and the 153. Bid. LX. 154. Ibid. LXI, LXII. 155. Ibid. LXIV. 6 156. Ibid. LXV. 157. T. B. 'Vastuvidya' p. 141. 158. Nagaranadhikrtyeh prameyam Vartnodita I Yo Visesoatra latanam prasamksepenamanyate II Nagaraistu samalata Kintu te Karmabhedakah I Catarsran tu tesam masuraka Kapotakau II -Hayasirsa.

320 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Aparajitapriccha 159 refers to the Lata Style. As shown above the Samarangana Sutradhara was perhaps mainly a work of the Lata school. The first classification of temples made in it contains many names quite different from those found in other works though the general ( traditional) system of dividing them into 5 classes according to shape (Round, square rectangular, oval, and octagonal) has been followed. The similarity, however, of some of these names with those in the Agni P. proves the statement of the Purana that the "Lata temples bear the same name," (though not exactly). What were the characterstics of this earlier period may be guessed from the Hayasissa panca ratram (Ch.-18) The verses concerned may be rendered as follows:- "The Lata temples are similar to Nagaras but they differ in the Karma (construction). Their masurakas (pedastals) and Kapotakas (mouldings) are square." The distinctive features are not clear. This is an example of auothers looking on other 159. The Aparajitaprccha confines the Nagari (Nagara) style to Madhyadesa and further mentions: Lati and Vairati (evidently of the Lata and Vairata regions) as separate styles: Nagari Madhyadesa tu Lati Lata Prakirttita I Dravidi daksine bhaga Vairati tu Svadesaja [[ Lati and Vairati should however, be considered as ramifications of the Nagara style which was current through out Northern India. (S. K. Sarsavati. 'Origion of Mediaeval temple styles' Indian Culture Vol. VIII. p. 183 f. note no. 2). The Brhta Samihita and other texts (like Aparajitapriccha etc.) on the Science of Architecture specifically mention that the Madhyadesa was the centre of the Nagara style and as Dr. Stella Kramarisch has suggested, from this centre under the patronage of the respective ruling dynasties, the specific types of temples built there, were seen to develop local variations of their own, in the countries to the East (Kalinga) and West (Lata) and from the Himalayas in the North to the river Tungabhadra in the South. (H. T. 1, p. 292. )

The Architectural Forms of Temples 321 schools as differing only in the shape of structures, as Dravidian authors later on did in defining the Nagara, Dravida and Vesara structures. 160 The original numbers of temples in the Lata order might have been 45, as mentioned in the Agni Purana but by the 11 th cent. A. D. it has reached 64, as is evident from Samarangana Sutradhara The Agamas though written at a later age generally represent an early stage of development of Vastuvidya of southern school. From the summary of Kamikagama 161 we find that this Agama is acquainted with the divisions of temples into Nagara, Dravida and Vesara. It further adds three more varieties Sarvadesika, Kalinga and Varata, to this list. 162 But the description of the Nagara type of temples, 163 offered by this Agama is considerably much different from the description of this class of temples narrated by Samarangana Sutradhara 164 and Aparajitapriccha 165 This clearly indicates that the divisions offered by the works of southern India were mostly confined to the temples built in that region and that the classification offered has nothing to do with the temple built in Northern India so far the classification of the temples is concerned. While discussing this topic Dr. T. B. Bhattacharya also arrives at a similar conclusion. He says, "There is therefore no doubt that the South Indian Vastu texts deal only with the Dravidian temples and their Nagara, Dravida and Vesara do not refer to their distinct styles or orders of Indian architecture; but for reasons now not clear, there was a confusion about the meaning of these words which shows (1) that this division was a later growth and (2) these meant to them not three different styles of three different countries but three classes or varieties of the South Indian temples and various other structures like the linga, Lingapitha etc. 166 160. T. Bhattacharya. 'A study on Vastuvidya' pp. 151-152. 161. Kamikagama. LXV.6-7, 12-18. 162. Ibid. XLIX; 2-3. 163. Ibid. XLIX, 5-10. 164. Samarangana Sutradhara LXI, LXII. 165. Aparajitapriccha CVI , 18-25. 166. 'A study on Vastuvidya'. p. 161.

322 The Structural Temples of Gujarat So the characteristics of three varieties Nagara, Dravida, Vesara, offered by Agamas 167 and Silpa texts like Manasara etc. 168 may fittingly apply to the temples of South India, which in shape are either square, rectangular circular, hexagonal and octagonal etc. The terminology about five fold shapes of the ground plan offered by Ag, P; Samarangana Sutradhara Aparajitapriccha (Vairaja etc.) is seen completely absent here; instead a new terminology about the shape i. e. for square 'Nagara', for circular Vesara and for hexagonal or octagonal Dravida' seems adopted by the southern school. $ Again, the description of temples under the head of Dravida given by Samarangana Sutradhara ; 169 Aparajitapriccha 170 etc, in many respect fits to the existing monuments of southern India. This shows that when the canonical works of Northern school describe the temples belonging to Dravida, etc. school, they have clear idea about their geographical aspect. So the conclusion, which we are here arriving at, is that in the Southern school the form Nagara, Dravida and Vesara is based on the shape of the temple; and to the Northern school the terms are in the sense of the geographical divisions of the country. i. e. the division to which they apply. But the canonical works do not treat the Lata type of temples as a separate group of temples obviously it seems. merged into all pervading and universal style Nagara. Samarangana Sutradhara treats temples enumerated by early sources like BrIhat Samhita , Meter P., Vishvakarma Prakasha etc. as Nagara temples (LXIII). But the Aparajitapriccha has reflected much light on this type of the temple and first and foremost preferance is given to Nagara in its fourteen main types of temples. (CIII, CIV etc.) 167. Kami. XLIX; Suprabhedagama XXXI, 37-39; Vaikhanasagama (Vide T. B. Vastuvidya p. 144) 168. Manasara. XVIII, 45-51, LIII, 27 XXI. 36 etc. For details see P. K. Acharya's Encyclopaedia of Hindu Architecture 'Nagara' pp. 260-272. 169. Samarangana Sutradhara LXII. 170. Aparajitapriccha CLXXIV.