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Kama is, generally but inaccurately, counted as the third aim of civilized life, Dharma or Civil and religious laws being the first, and Artha or economic matters being the second. This false notion of comparative importance or precedence of the Hindu aim of life is based on the assumption that the material happiness was not the first consideration among the Hindus. But from the archaeological remains of the pre-vedic Mahenjodaro of about 3000 BC. it is clear beyond doubt that more direct attention was paid to the material progress, and comfort and convenience of household life than to the spiritual one. In the subsequent Vedic period the same aim of life might have continued despite the fact that the early Vedic hymns refer largely to the spiritual life. Nothing short should be expected in the Veda because the ultimate object of that literature was a spiritual one. In the later Vedas, like the Atharvan and in parts of Brahmanas and Sutras, however, more interest appears to have been taken in the the material progress of life. It is clearly stated that 'as Arthasastra is intended for kings and ministers, so Kama-sastra is studied by Nagarakas or citizens of taste who desire to practice refinement and profit to the most by their knowledge of all that is meant by Kama', not merely association with women but also other desires which make the home life and office life worth living. Women are also expected "to study (the subject of kama) if they are such as come into contact with gentlemen, the princesses, and daughters of high officials." Moreover on the general principle of Kama that "all's fair in love and

war" instructions are included in modes of deceiving maidens and of seducing the wives of others, 'with as much sang-froid as the Artha-sastra in inculcating. the benefits of defeating an opponent by guile". For the purpose of observing due moderation a student of K masistra has, however, to remember the claims of the Arthasastra, for otherwise, the social equilibrium will be lost, and also of the Dharmasastra for the sake of the social and moral discipline. Thus Kama-sastra corresponds to Eugenics, the science which deals with "race culture". The earliest author of the Kamasastra is Svetaketu, the Vedic scholar, who is stated to have composed a treatise which Parchchala Babhravya condensed in seven chapters. Each of these seven sections is stated to have been elaborated by Dattaka, Charayana, Suvarna-nabna, Ghotaka-mukha, Gonardiya, Gonika-putra, and Kuchumara. All these books must have been once in existence. All these authors are mentioned and quoted in later literature, The first regular treatise on Kamasistra is however, the Kamasutra of Vatsyayana (about 250 A.D.). It is divided into seven parts. The first part deals with generalities, the second with the purpose of the book, the three ends of man (kama, artha, dharma), the sciences, the character of an elegant person and the description of the friends and go-betweens who held him in his intrigues. The third refers to the relations with maidens, giving hints to courtship. The fourth part discusses relations with married women and the fifth with relations with the women of others. The sixth relates to courtesans. The seventh deals with the secret matters to secure love. Yasodhara (about 1243-61) wrote his commentary, Jayamangala. Other minor works includes the Panchasayaka by Jyotirisvara who came after Kshemendra. The Ratirahasya was written by Kokkaka before 1200 and is a compilation from the words of Nandikesvara, Gonikaputra and Vatryayana The Ratimanjari of Jayadeva (may be the author of the Gitagovinda) and the Anangaranga of Kalyanamalla were written in the sixteenth century. The Ratirahasya is ascribed to a Nagarjuna. There is a commentary, Smara-tattva-prakasika by one Revanaradhya. The sciences (Sastra) referred to in the introduction of the Kamasutra of Vatsyayana deal with the traditional

list of sixty-four arts (kala). This list is also met with in the mythological works like the Srimad-bhagavata, the Harivamsa, and the Vishnupurana; and the Buddhist Jain works like the Lalita vistara and the Uttaradhyayanasutra. In the Kamasastra group these arts are stated to be taught for the refinement of Nagarakas (citizens) or properly educated men and women. The mythological groups make mention of these sixty-four arts in connexion with the various kinds of knowledge acquired by the chief heroes, Krishna and Balarama The Buddhist-Jain group refers to these arts in connexion with the education of the respective heroes, Bodhisattva and Mahavira. This list of sixty-four arts, almost identical in the various branches of literature, includes various matters which go far beyond the sex-relations to which the extant Kamasastras have confined their . discussion. The list comprises all such subjects as are required for the real refinement and enjoyment of life. Thus the vocal music (gita) comes first. Then follows in order instrumental music (vadya), dancing (nritya), dramatic performance (natya), painting (alekhya), tattooing and facial decoration (viseshaka-chchhedya), artistic arrangement of rice-meal, flowers, and dishes (tandula-kusumabali-vikara), making beds of flowers (pushpastarana); the arts of staining teeth, dyeing cloth, and colouring the body with powder and paints; art of bed-making (sayana-rachana); playing with an instrument on water (udaka-vadya) like the musical glasses; art of making fountains; pictorial arts (chitrayoga); art of making garlands; art of putting on ornaments on the head; scenic representation (nepathya-prayoga), painting the cheeks with sandal, etc, perfumery; art of putting on ornaments, art of jugglery; tricks; prestidigitation ; art of cooking; preparation of beverages; weaving, tailoring or sewing including embroidery ; art of playing with thread and rope; playing with lute and small drum; solution of riddles, charades, etc, modelling and making images; mimicry ; elocution; tableau vivants; solution of verbal puzzles; crafts like making of sticks, baskets, etc; making twist with a spindle or distaff; carpentry; architecture (vastuvidya), testing of gold, silver and precious stones; art of setting, purifying and mixing of metals (dhatu-vidya); colouring precious stones; art of ascertaining the existence of wines, gardening including

planting, nursing, caring, etc., of plants, flowers, fruits; ram-fighting, cock-fighting and quecil-fighting; training of parrots; arts of messaging and shampooing; hairdressing; guessing unseen things and letters held in a closed fist; using secret code, knowledge of languages of various countries; making of flower carriages; reading of omens; art of making monograms, logographs, and diagrams; composing enigmetic poetry; art of debate ; extempore composition of verses; memorising of lexicons; knowledge of poetic metres; acquaintance with poetics and grammar; art of personification; magic like the changing of appearance of fabrics; art of gambling; disc-playing; making dolls for children; art of etiquettes%; art of archery; and the knowledge of sports, physical exercises and hunting, etc.¹ This list should remove the false notion regarding the scope of the Kamasutra which is not limited to the sexual love alone. It deals with the entire raceculture and includes all the fine arts and crafts which are necessary for the cultural and technical perfection of the life of civilized men and women. This should also make it clear that of the three ends of life Kama must have been given the first place in our ancient culture because, as hinted in the mythological treatises and Buddhist-Jain scriptures, these arts formed the essential subjects of primary education of their ideal heroes from the childhood onwards. Artha was required next and Dharma or civil and religious needs were counted as the third stage of our cultural development. These fine arts (silpa) developed to such an extent that every one of them was regulated by a scientific treatise (sastra). Some of these standard works discussed more than one of these arts. For instance, the Natyasastra (dramaturgy) dealt with, as noted in the next chapter, not merely with the scenic representation but also with all the allied subjects, viz., music, songs, dance, poetics, construction of the stage, dressing, elocution, in fact everything connected with the playing of a piece. Similarly in poeticts poeticts are included not only the composition of poetic sentences but also the accents, metres, figures of speech, even grammar although the Vyakarana-sastra dealing with the morphological 1 For further details vide the Writer's 'Hindu Architecture in India and Abroad', Introduction, pp. 1-25.

changes of words formed a different science (sastra). The Vastuvidya (architecture) deals with not ony villages, towns, houses, but also articles of furniture, carpentry, conveyances, ornaments for the decoration of the body as well as making of images although there is a separate science dealing with sculpture. The Ayurveda (science of living) deals not only with the means of curing diseases by the application of medicines, surgery, dentistry, etc., but also with the preparations of dugs, etc., although there are separate science dealing with mix. tures (rasiyanasastra), herbs (vriksha), anatomy, physiology, etc. Minerology and Geology are similarly included in this list of arts. But unfotunately the texts on all these sciences have not yet been discovered and published. For practical end of life the preparation of food and drinks is essential and of primary importance and has been incidentally referred to in various branches of literature, but unifortunately no standard text is yet availlable on this subject. Similarly scientific texts (astra) are missing on subjects like weaving, solution of puzzles, discovery of mines, testing of precious stones, nursing of plants, fighting, making of weapons, training of birds and animals, reading of omens, personification, gambling, etiquettes, sports, hunting and physical exercises, etc. It is obvious that all these sciences advance the practical end (kama) of life and should be treated under the general heading of of Kamasastra. The few texts available on architecture, medicine, astronomy, astrology and mathematics may thus be discussed below.