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1 CHAPTER-I INTRODUCTION 1. A BRIEF NOTE ON INDIAN PHILOSOPHY i) Meaning of the term philosophy The term 'philosophy' has its origin from two Greek words- 'Philos' and 'Sophia', which means 'love' and 'wisdom' respectively. Hence it literally means 'love of wisdom' or pursuit of knowledge. Philosophy leads people towards the light of knowledge. It is an attempt to satisfy the desire of knowledge, which is the rational nature of man. It helps in seeking the truth and knowledge of reality. It enquires the nature of the universe, the nature of human soul and its destiny, the nature of God or the absolute. It enquires the nature of matter, time, space, causality, evolution, life and mind and their relation to one another. In words of S. Radhakrishnan, it is the Master of Science, without which they tend to become empty and foolish. "Philosophy" says Kautilya, "is the lamp of all the sciences, the means of performing all the works and the support of all the duties." ii) Aim of Indian Philosophy In Indian literature philosophy is termed as 'Darsana'. It stands for the direct, immediate and intuitive vision of reality, the actual perception of truth and also includes the means which lead to this realisation.² India has made an immence contribution in the world of thought, particularly in the field of philosophy and religion. Most of the Indian systems of thought accept the 1. Indian Philosophy Vol. I. p.23. 2. A Critical Survey of Indian Philosophy p.13.

2 authority of the Vedas and the Upanisads as the source. For over a period of four thousand years, Indian ascetics developed their systems of philosophy. Though there developed different schools of philosophy in India and they present a diversity of views, we can discern even in the systems or schools the common stamp of an Indian culture that the Indian philosophy. The key note of all schools of Indian Philosophy is 'see the self³. The self is realized in oneself by him who sees this One through truth and concentration.* In Mundakopanisad we find that "when the soul is seen, the knot of the heart is united, all doubts are dispelled and all act- forces are exhausted " iii) Schools of Indian Philosophy Indian philosophical systems are divided into two broad classes, viz. astika (orthodox) and nastika (heterodox). Literally the word astika means a theist or one who believes in the existence of God or the Absolute and the word nastika means an atheist or one who does not believe in the existence of God or the Absolute. In the view of philosopher the astika is one who believes in the authority of the Vedas and the nastika is one who doesnot believe in the authority of the Vedas. Thus astika or orthodox School includes six systems of Indian philosophy which are collectively known as saddarsanani. Again, there are two types of philosophical systems in the astika class itself -- (i) those which are directly based on the vedic scriptures and (ii) those 3. atma va are drastyavyah' Brihadaranykopanisad II, iv.5. 4. 5. evamatmatmani grhyate 'sau tapasa yo'nupasyati. Sveta.1.15. bhidyate hrdayagranthih chidyante sarvasamsayah/ ksiyante casya karmani tasmin drste paravare // Mundakopanisad II. ii. 9 }

3 which are not directly based on the vedic scriptures but have an independent basis. The former includes Mimamsa and Vedanta. Of these the first emphasizes the earlier portion of the Vedas and the second deals with the later portion of the Vedas. Hence the Mimamsa is called as the Purva-mimamsa and the Vedanta is known as the Uttara-mimamsa. The later includes Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya and Vaisesika. They accept the validity of the Vedas and try to show the harmony of their own thought depending on human experience and reasoning with that of the Vedas. However, these six orthodox systems are generally mentioned as three pair: Nyaya-Vaisesika, Samkhya-Yoga and Mimamsa-Vedanta. The first pair sets forth an account of cosmic evolution on purely logical principles. The second pair lays down the methodology of science and elaborates the concept of physics and chemistry to show how manifestation of phenomena comes into being. The third pair critically analyses the basic principles, developing them in greater detail and furnishing arguments to substantiate, as well as making incidental contributions on points of special interest. The nastika, viz. the Carvaka, the Bauddha and the Jaina schools arose mainly by opposition to the Vedic tradition and therefore, they rejected the authority of the Vedas and based their philosophies on ordinary experience and independent reasoning which runs counter to the Vedic culture. Therefore these may be regarded as nastika or heterodox systems of Indian philosophy. However, there are different opinions of different thinkers regarding the number of systems of Indian philosophy. According to the author of Sarvadarsana-samgraha, the schools of Indian philosophy are Carvaka, Bauddha, Arhata, Ramanuja,

4 Madhva, Nakulisapasupata, Saiva, Pratyavijna, Rasesvara, Aulukya, Aksapada, Jaimini, Panini, Samkhya, Yoga and Samkara. In the sivamahimnastotra of Puspadanta, it is said that there are only four schools of philosophy, viz. Samkhya, Yoga, Pasupata and Vaisnava. According to Kautilya, the author of the Arthaskstra, Samkhya, Yoga and Lokayata are the three philosophical systems. Madhusudana Sarasvati, in his Prasthanabheda, mentions that Nyaya, Vaisesika, Karma-mimamsa, Samkara-mimamsa, Pancaratra and Pasupata are the astika darsana and Bauddha, Jaina and Carvaka, the nastika darsana. The author of Nyayakosa mentions that there are only six darsanas, viz. two Yogas, two Mimamsakas and two Tarkas.