Historicizing Trika Saivism (Cultural and Economic Context) [Part 5]

A Historical Study of Trika Shaivism

by Haroon Rashid Ganai | 2023 | 41,966 words

This essay studies the philosophy and cultural impact of Trika Shaivism鈥攁 unique religious tradition that emerged in Kashmir around the mid-9th century A.D鈥攁nd examines how it evolved from the religious milieu of ancient Kashmir, which was a melting pot of various traditions. The study further focuses on the origins, philosophical nuances, and scri...

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Part 5 - Historicizing Trika Saivism (Cultural and Economic Context)

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Following the analogy of Guptas, Karkotas, on the one hand were able to consolidate their rule efficiently and on the other gave rise to accommodative religious environment within the boundaries of their empire. Thus, in this accommodative environment equal opportunities were given to all the religious intelligentsia to discuss their theology and philosophy on dialogic model. Not only this, but even the scholars from diverse regions was brought to Kashmir for enriching its social-cultural landscape with their respective expertise and the most important aspect to this course was religion.^[1]

The advent and presence of scholars in Kashmir from various regions was not absent before seventh century A.D. or for that matter before Karkotas. We have reference in Mahavamsa about the advent of famous Buddhist saint Majjhantika to Kashmir during the reign of Asoka.^[2] Similarly we are informed by Kalhana as to how Nagarjuna came all the way from south India to Kashmir for the propagation of Buddhist philosophy of nothingness (Sunyavad) during Kushana period.^[3] Similarly, Hun ruler Mihirkula brought Brahmans from Gandhara to Kashmir for the propagation of Saivism and gave them Agraharas at Vijesvara, present Bijbehara.^[4] But as already mentioned during that period (before 7^th century A.D.) it was confrontation not accommodation which was a dominant feature of religious life, thus these scholars were working only for the dominance of their own respective faiths at the cost of others. But when shift occurred from confrontation to accommodation under Karkotas, we see scholars of diverse ideological spectrums and specializations were brought to Kashmir and patronized on equal footings by the ruling elite in order to enrich the land and its people with their expertise and shape their psyche on dialogic model.

Thus, about Lalitaditya we are being informed that,

鈥淗e gathered from different countries the various wise men, as the wind collects masses of full-blown flowers from the trees.鈥�^[5]

In this context Abhinavagupta informs us that his great grandfather Atrigupta was brought to Kashmir from Madhyadesa (Kannauj) by King Lalitaditya on account of the discourse on Rasa (theory of aesthetics). He further writes that Atrigupta was a Brahman of the Agastya lineage who had digested the sea of scriptures in its entirety.^[6] Perhaps the king also brought to his court the poets of Yasovarman of Kannauj, as Kalhana informs us that Vakpatiraja, Bhavabuti and other poets became panegyrist of Lalitaditya after the defeat of former.^[7]

Similarly Sarvajnamitra, famous Buddhist scholar, lived during Lalitaditya鈥檚 time. This monk is said to have been the ardent devotee of goddess Tara and composed in her praise a hymn of thirty-seven verses called Sragdhara Stotra.^[8] Another Buddhist scholar who lived during Lalitaditya鈥檚 times was Ravigupta. He was well versed in Tantra and expounded Nagarjuna鈥檚 philosophy of Sunyavad. He is said to have built twelve centres for the propagation of this doctrine in Kashmir and Magadha.^[9] One of the most important Karkota king under whom the intellectual developments reached to the pinnacle of its glory was the grandson of Lalitaditya, Jayapida. This king was more inclined towards learning than war and had good command on different branches of Knowledge especially Natyasastra (Dramaturgy), Kavya (poetry) and Vyakarna (Grammar). This is undoubtedly the reason that Kalhana calls him ScholarKing. For intellectual engagements and learning, this king patronized in his court many scholars (indigenous and foreign).

We are being informed by Kalhana that,

鈥淗e collected scholars to such an extent that there was dearth of learned men in the courts of other kings.鈥�^[10]

He is said to have brought experts from outside Kashmir to restore in his country the study of Patanjali鈥檚 Mahabasya (treatise on grammar). Similarly Ksira is said to have been king鈥檚 teacher of Vyakarna and within a short span of time the king had attained such an expertise in this field that Kalhana compares him with Panini (renowned grammarian).^[11] Similarly, a famous Buddhist logician Dharmakaradatta was also present during his reign. The theory of Rasa as propounded by the famous Dramaturgic Bharata Muni, was propagated in Kashmir during his reign by two thinkers namely Lolluta and Sankuka. Similarly, a poet Bhatta Udbhata who is said to have written comprehensively on the poetic or Alankara school whose Alankara samgraha comprehensively deals with definition and explanation of fourty-one Alankaras, lived in Jayapida鈥檚 court. One of the most celebrated poets of Kashmir namely Damodragupta who has authored Kuttinimata was also thrived during his reign.^[12] After bringing these scholars to Kashmir, Karkota rulers gave them economic returns for their intellectual services in the form of Agraharas, state jobs, accommodations etc.

For example when Atrigupta was brought to Kashmir to quote Abhinavagupta:

In that city on the bank of Vitasta, the king got created the dwelling of Atrigupta facing the temple of Siva who is used to move in the city of kubera, the god of wealth, with a view to facilitate for him continuous sight, darsana, along with arrangement of profuse prosperity.^[13]

Not surprisingly, Jayapida鈥檚 chief administrative officials were scholars only. Damodragupta, famous poet and the author of Kuttinimata, was king鈥檚 chief councilor. Similarly, poet Bhatta Udbhata, was king鈥檚 Sabhapati (Chief Pandit) who received daily allowances of one lack Dinnaras. This reference makes it crystal clear that the state was paying handsomely.^[14]

By bringing large number of scholars pertaining to religion, philosophy, aesthetics, poetry, dramaturgy, etc Karkota rulers made Kashmir the cultural centre of South Asia, which is also attested by Louis Massignon on the basis of his interpretation of an episode described by Abu Dulaf Mis鈥檃r-b-Muhalhil Khazraji in his travelogue to quote:

Qashmir, under the Karkutaka dynasty, had become an important intellectual center, where Hindus and Turkish Buddhists of the neighboring and allied state of Gandhara (Qandahar, Wayhind the capital; Hindushahi dynasty reigns there from 880 to 1013) mingled with foreign scholars. There was an observatory there.^[15]

Although under Karkotas we don鈥漷 have comprehensive reference with regard to the debates and dialogue among scholars, but the following statement of Kalhana about the king Jayapida substantiates the argument:

鈥淭hat pure-minded [King] did not allow any king to compete with himself, but was proud of being able himself to compete with the learned.鈥�^[16]

After inviting these scholars, the aim of benefitting from the fruits of their intellectual services received a serious dent due to the sudden change of Jayapida鈥檚 character and the incompetent band of rulers that followed him. About the Jayapida鈥檚 sudden change in the conduct, Kalhana informs us that when the king changed his demeanor, so did his scholars in their poems or Kavyas, from eulogy to satire.^[17] Similarly post Jayapida rulers instead of encouraging the scholarly environment to benefit the land, did their best to crumble it down. Those rulers were highly incompetent and remained busy in sexual pleasures and power politics. For example, about Jayapida鈥檚 successor Lalitapida, we are told that he preferred spending his time in the enjoyment of prostitutes and compromised performing his kingly duties. His court is said to have been adorned by the people who were acquainted with the stories of courtesans than any valiant man or scholar. The other Karkota rulers were also mere puppets in the hands of their officials and remained engaged in court factionalism till the Karkota rule vanished from the land.

However, after Karkotas, Utpalas took over Kashmir around sixth decade of ninth century A.D. and their rule also proved to be a blessing for Kashmir. These rulers carried forward the tradition of Karkotas i.e. 鈥淩ule by Puranic injections.鈥� The rule of Utpalas, especially of its founder Avantivarman (855-883 A.D.), proved more beneficial and development oriented for Kashmir in socio-economic terms, if not in political, than Karkota s. He first dealt with the political instability of the region and restored peace by defeating his opponents; after achieving it, he devoted his time to the overall development of Kashmir.^[18] Thus, the process of learning and intellectual engagements which had barred since the second half of the Jayapida鈥檚 reign was restored by Avantivarman through his minister Sura. On the analogy of Karkota s they also patronized scholars and encouraged intellectual dialogue.

Kalhana informs us about this minister that,

鈥淏y honouring learned men with a seat in the king鈥檚 sabha (court) caused learning, whose flow had been interrupted, to descend again upon this land.鈥�^[19]

Avantivarman offered great favours and respect to scholars; they were offered vehicles for proceeding to Sabha not less than the worthy of king鈥檚 own vehicle.鈥�^[20] Avantivarman鈥檚 court was adorned by poets like Anandavardhana and Ratnakara. Similarly, foundational thinkers of Trika Saivism like Vasugupta, Somananda, Bhatta Kallata, and Utpaladeva flourished during Avantivarman鈥檚, Samkaravarman鈥檚 (883-902 A.D.) and their successors鈥� period.^[21] Similarly, the famous philosopher, logician and Dramatist, namely Jayanta Bhatta, who is known for his Sanskrit play Agamadambara, was Samkaravarman鈥檚 advisor. Pertinent to mention here that the famous 鈥渕ystic and martyr of Islam鈥�, Mansur Al-Hallaj (858922 A.D.), came to Kashmir during Samkaravarman鈥檚 period.^[22]