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CHAPTER 882 SIXTEEN THE TILAK A MANJARI AS A SANSKRIT NOVEL (An Estimate in View of Modern Western Standards of Fiction-Writing). I:INTRODUCTORY REMARKS: Dhanapala's Tilakamanjari of Dhanapala, technically styled as 'Katha' 1 by Sanskrit rhetoricians, is but a Sanskrit novel, alias a prose-romance of the tenth and eleventh century A.D. The critical estimate of a later date, says Krishna Chaitanya, distinguished between two types of novels, the Akhyayika, built around real people and incidents, and a Katha, of which the plot was pure invention; but there being not enough examples to substantiate the validity of this distinction, the distiction has not been very sharp, since invention has been given a free hand, thogh the main characters may be historical personalities. Dr. M.Winternitz has also observed that fictions and novels in Sanskrit ornate prose, such as Dasakumaracarita, Vasavadatta, and Kadambari, are compositions in ornate poetry, of which the authors try to build their narrative stuff partly from the popular tales, stories, swa- 1. A New History of Sanskrit literature, p.375. ngs, / 2. HIL(W),Vol.III,Pt.I,p.306.

883 and religious stories and partly invent it indepenently; but that in any case they have to make efforts in framing and arranging them in the form of an independent work. But the essential difference between the Western concept of 'Novel' and the Indian concept of 'Gadya-kavya' has been aptly underlined, though not consciously, by C. Kunhan Raja," who draws special attention to the fact that Sanskrit makes no difference between works in a metrical form and works without the factor of metres so far as poetry is concerned, that both are called poetry if they are poetry on a ccount of their artistic beauty in form, and that poetry is to be recited and enjoyed through the ear as much as through the heart when the ideas are presented in artistic language. On the other hand, modern European concept of 'Novel' implies that it is a work of art meant to be enjoyed through the eyes as much as through the heart when the presentation appeals by the power of effective and graphic representation of ideas and characters. Thus, though the channel for reception or enjoyment of this art form is different in the respective case, the ultimate destination, viz., the heart, is common. And this is the reason why predominantly prose-works in Sanskrit deserve to be classed essentially as nothing but Sanskrit 3. Survey of Sanskrit Literature , pp.200,219.

884 Novels of medieval India. The particular distinctive factor of this Sanskrit Novel is that it is the combination of language styles that gives pleasure to the ear and also to the heart by lond reverberating musical compounds, double-meaning, alliterations, collocations of different sounds of special features; and all such matters form the essential elements 4 of this form of Poetry. Inspite of this distinction, the fact remains that, as works of literary art, both the medieval Sanskrit novel and the modern Western novel have great human interest and also a great practical value. And all great works of art have a certain universal appeal and essential worth transcending the barriers of time and place. It is in this light that we propose to examine the worth of Dhanapala's Tilakamanjari of Dhanapala as a 'Novel'. 5 A novel, as M. Abel Chevalley puts in a simple way, is a fiction in prose of a certain extent. And the fundamental aspect of the novel, as has been aptly spelt out by 6 E.M.Forster, is its story-telling aspect without which it could not exist; that is the highest factor common to all novels, and runs like a veritable backbone. A story is a narrative of events arranged in their time sequence, having only one merit of making the audience want to know what happens next; the story narrates the life in time, and a good 4. Survey of Sanskrit Literature , p.200,219. / 5. AN,p.14. 6. ibid.,pp.40-41.

885 novel includes the life of values as well." This same factor has been elucidated by H.W. Lagget who points out that a novel is not a reproduction of life, it is a recreation of it in such a manner that something which is not present in real life manifests itself something which we call a comment, a judgment, a gesture, a valuation; it is this that gives to the life depicted in fiction a significance. But, unlike real life, fiction is under the compulsion of consistency meaning thereby that by the time the story is finished the inconsistencies not only of the individual characters but of the story itself have become subordinated to or resolved into an all-comprehending consistency; completeness ak and consistency with itself are essential preliminaries to significance in a work of fiction.9 It is not characters and incidents but what the author has felt or thought about that that form the raw material of E 10 fiction. Thiugh at present there is a tendency to dwell on characterization rather than on incident and, of course, characterization is important, W. Somerset Maugham emphasizes that to concentrate on characters rather than on what happens to tham is merely one way of writing a novel like another; and some good novels like Gil Blas and Monte Cristo, 7. AN,pp.43-45. 9. ibid.,p.15. 11. Ten Novels and Their Authors,p.18. / 8. The Idea in Fiction, pp.12-13. /10/ ibid.,p.19.

886 have been written; inspite of the fact that the characterization in them is perfunctory or common place. 12 H.W.lagget has observed that for the most part the writer of fiction relies upon the inherited tradition and his own instinct when he composes and writes a story. The fact that fiction tends very definitely to conform to a shape is due partly to the limitations of the medium itself, partly to the tradition of story-telling, but scarcely at all as a rule to the deliberate intention of the author. Much the same thing applies to plot. What the author generally sets out to achieve is simply to present his story as effectively as possible. In this, howefer, he is necessarily, but often unconsciously, influenced by the tradition of story-telling and avails himself of the methods and devices that form the part of that tradition. The effective presentation of the story requires a chronological rearrangement of the 'occasion' or possibly a rearrangement of the 13 order of the normal stages of development. The plot of the is. story, then, the form finally taken by the 'occasion' for its effective presentation to the reader or audience. Plotting is required in the first place by the needs of story- -telling but it is also the source of the aesthetic satisfaction provided by fiction. 14 But the 'occasion' need not 12. The Idea in Fiction,p.53. / 13. ibid.,p.54. / 14. ibid.,p.63.

887 be anything concise and compact. It may cover the entire life of the principal character or even the rise and fall of a family through several generations; it may be a whole historical epoch or a short period of contemporary history, a love-affair, a crime, an adventure or a natural phenome鉂� 15 non. S Nor is fiction always dramatic; that is to say, it may not deal with clash or conflict of codes or of code and desire, but simply with a contrast of codes which never 16. issue into conflict. In less sophisticated fiction conflicts are in the main between individuals; the interest largely depends upon the fact that the rival protagonists both 17 represent a code. The author's concern is mainly with what is passing in his characters' mind which inevitably concerns their codes as these conflict with their immediate desires. A large part of the interest of fiction may 19 be found in the actual expression or comparision of codes. And in the case of many novels, plays and short-stories, the significance is something that flashes upon the reader or the audience suddenly as the thing finishes%;B most novelists are content to leave the significance implicit in the ending, the "upshot" of the affair. 20 But, such as it is, the significance is clear and definite enough; the clash of codes is resolved; the best code wins. 21 Only the 1+ 15.11F,p.66. / 16. ibid., p.72. / 17.ibid., p.76."/ 18.ibid., p.80./19.ibid., p.83./20.ibid., p.84./21.ibid.,85. 85.

888 very unsophisticated are willing to read fiction which presents action, happenings, divorced from any suggestion of meaning; since fiction cannot keep away for long from questions of morality and value. 22 The essential function of fiction, then, is to provide the reader with opportunity of for the imaginative understanding/human nature in the ideal 23 conditions for its exercise. The author aims at communicating to the reader the excitement evoked in himself by the contemplation of some character or incident or aspect of life and induce in him a mood related to his own, and to reach, through the mind of the reader, to his emotions to play on his feelings, to control his judgment and to induce him to adopt for the time being certain values, a 24 code, that is not his normal code. Writing is a means of expression; and to cultivate a mastery of the means is obviously a necessary task for the writer. But writing is more than a means of clear and expression. It is, in fiction, primarily a means of communication. The author has to recreate his thoughts and feelings in another mind and establish his own personality. Rhythm, balance, variety of cadence are necessary means to secure his readers' attention and keep it alert, eager, intersted. This brings in what is known as 'Style'. From 22.11F,p.91./23.ibid.,p.110./24.ibid., ppl 17./25.ibid., pp. 123-124. 3

889 the author's point of view it is only adequacy of means to end; while from the readers' point of view it is effectiveness of communication. All art is the communication 27 of excitement through one medium or another. It is a method of spotlight and microscope; the excitement is continuous and intense; everything the characters say and do 28 To is magnified and seen under a bright illumination. the writer of fiction, every incident in a tale, every detail, every sentence, represents an opportunity, an occasion for the exercise of his imagination. It is not a question of what is generally called style. Some eminent novelists have a very poor style; but they never make a mistake of writing a paragraph which has not in itself a certain significance; the material of fiction is not reality, but an idealization of reality in which nothing exists or happens without a purpose, without meaning something. And the author's method of accomplishing this is by saying something more or somewhat less than he means the reader 30 to understand. And perhaps it is in this manner that an aesthetic element enters into the avery texture of fiction which compels the reader a constant exercise of the imagination. Not what the author observes of life but what he feels and thinks about it, his reactions to it, are the 26. The Idea in Fiction,p.126. / 27. ibid., p.132. / 28. ibid.,p.133. 29. ibid.,p.139. / 30. ibid., p.140. / 31. ibid., p.141..

890 substance of fiction. But the medium compels it to assume a shape, colours it with temperament of individual characters from whose standpoint it is depicted and with the temperament of the author, who lends his mental and emotional view of life to the reader for the time being. 33 W.Somerset Maugham candidly observes that there are to main ways a novel may be written, viz., to write it in the first person, or to write it from the point of view of omniscience. In the latter case it runs the risk of being unwieldy, verbose and diffuse, since the author has to get into the skin of every one of his characters, feel his feelings, think his thoughts; but he has his limitations and he can only do this when there is in himself something of the character he has created. Even then the novelists have found it on the whole the most satisfactory way of dealing with their difficulties. On the other hand, to tell the story in the first person has also certain advantages: It lends verisimilitude to the narrative and obliges the author to stick to his point, and it enlists your sympathy with the narrator. 34 i 35 To sum up, then, in the words of W. Somerset Maughan, the qualities that a good novel ham should have are the following: (i) It should have a widely interesting theme, 32.The Idea in Fiction,p.152./33.Ten Novels and Their Authors, p.8./34.ibid., pp.9-10./35.ibid.,pp. 12-13. "

891 so broadly human that its appeal is to men and women in general; (ii) the theme should be of enduring interest; (iii) the story should be coherent and pursuasive; it should have the a beginning, a middle and an end, and the end should beDnatural consequence of the beginning; (iv) the episodes should have probability and should not only detelope the theme, but grow out of the story; (v) the creature of the novelist's imagination characters should be observed with individuality, and their actions should proceed from their characters; (vi) their speech should also proceed from character; the dialogue should be neither desultory nor should it be an occasion for the author to air his views%3B it should serve to characterize the speakers and advance the story; (vii) the narrative passages should be vivid, to the point and no longer than is necessary to make the motives of the persons concerned, and the situation in which they are placed, clear and convincing; (viii) the writing should be simple enough for anyone of fair education to read with ease, and the manner should fit with the matter; and finally (ix) a novel should be entertaining; it is the essential quality without which no other quality avails; and the more intelligent a novel offers, the better it is. 36 At the same time, warns W.Somerset Maugham, on even if the novel has all the qualities mentioned above, and 36. Ten Novels and Their Authors,p.14.

892 that is asking a lot, there is, like a flaw in a precious stone, a faultiness in the form that renders perfection impossible to attain. That is why no novel is perfect. A novel is a narrative of indefinate length. In order to give probability to his story, the author has to narrate a series of a facts that are relevant to it, but that are not in themsel-, ves interesting. Events often requires to be separated by lapse of time, and the author for the balance of his work has to insert, as best as he can, matter that will fill up his lapse. These passages are known as bridges. The novelist is human and it is inevitable that he should be susceptible to the fashions of his day, and so is often led to write what, as fashion passes, loses its attractiveness. When the romantic school captivated the public fancy, it grew modish to write descriptions for their own sake.Dawn Dawn and setting Sun, the starry night, the cloudless sky, the snow-capped mountains, the dark forests all gave occasion to interminable descriptions. Many were in themselves beautiful; but they were irrelevant. This is an adventitious 37 imperfection. The desire to listen to stories, shrewdly observes 38 W. Somerset Maugham, appears to be as deeply rooted in the human animal as the sense of property. The story, the plot, 37. Ten Novels and Their Authors, pp.14-15. / 38. ibid.,p.17.

893 therefore, is that as it were a lifeline which the author throws to the reader in order to hold its interest. By the incidents he chooses to relate, the characters he selects and his attitude towards them, the author offers you a criticism of life. He is in his own modest way a moralist.. The foregoing rather long diversion is excusable on # the ground that it is meant to give in a nutshell the clear concept about 'Novel' or the form of fiction that has developed since last few centuries in Burope. It is an endeavour 39, after search for standards. Henre Peyre has recorded how Croce tried to provide his ideal critic with a standard of taste, meaning thereby that a work should be valued according to the "degree of harmony between the poet's vision and his handiwork", or between the intuition and the expression of the artist. A good novel or a poem would be characterized by its inner harmony. Another valid standard of taste is the functional notion of beauty. Most of the critical notions would thus be reduced to two : (i) What has the author tried to do ? (ii) How has he done it ? And henry Peyre emphasizes that these two undoubtedly should remain the valid points of view from which a critic should look upon the artist and literary works; it is especially useful in any study of style, considered as the faithful garb of the writer's personality. But, he further adds, the stamp 39. WATC, p.231. 鈥� 40 / 40. ibid., pp.231-234.

894 of genius is often better recognized in a failure than in perfect agreement between conception and achievement. n up 41 In the realm of beauty as in the realm of feeling, neither analysis for methodical consistency can ever reach the ultimate secrets of elusive reality. Analysis succeeds best with second-rate writers; the first-rate artist defies it precisely where he is great; indeed that transcendence which forces use to be content with experiencing an artist's greatness with humilityis often the surest proof of his genius. Disconcertingly enough, such greatness of is often made of faults as well as of qualities%;B and the true critic is he who accepts, while fully discerning them, the limitations of a superior talent as conditions for a higher good. Permanent greatness is seldom all of one piece. Variety, either in breadth or depth and an element of mystery # which future ages may explore with renewed delight, give a book or a painting the most valid promises of a continued appeal and hence universal agreement as to its goodness. 鉂� With these raforenzzz remarks concerning the function of, and standards in, criticism, we now pass on to the examination of Dhanapala's genius as expressed in his Tilakamanjari of Dhanapala