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From the first 腻腻谤测补 of the 罢别谤腻辫补苍迟丑补 sect, 叠丑颈办峁�u, to D膩lacanda (1897鈥�1909), the seventh head of the 罢别谤腻辫补苍迟丑补 sect, there was no specific modification in the ideology of the world-renouncing rigorous asceticism. Moreover, with the exception of 腻迟腻辫补苍腻, 办腻测辞迟蝉补谤驳补 and meditation of self-awareness undertaken as one of the steps of the 腻惫补艣测补办补 rites (辫谤补迟颈办谤补尘补峁嘺), there was no distinctive development documented in the field of meditation. The fourth 腻肠腻谤测补, Jay腻肠腻谤测补, did produce some compositions on the subject, but in brief. The small meditational texts and his personal practices are not widely known within the ascetic or lay communities.

After the death of the eighth 腻肠腻谤测补, K膩lur膩ma (1877鈥�1935), 罢耻濒补蝉墨 became the ninth head of the Ter膩panth order, at the age of twenty-two. 罢耻濒补蝉墨 was assisted by Mah膩praj帽a (1920鈥�2010) who shared his desire for progress, innovation and modernisation.

Fl眉gel states that:

[T]he Ter膩panth order reformed itself and adopted an interest not only in world renunciation but also in world transformation, that is, in the improvement of the conditions of existence, on a regional, national and global scale. An important element of their outward looking, modernist orientation was their keen interest in the interaction between Jainism and modern science, especially biology, medicine and neuroscience, and also the fields of comparative philology, philosophy, ethics, psychology, social work and health (Fl眉gel, 2011: 25).

罢耻濒补蝉墨 was open-minded, and believed that rituals obstruct progress. This is why he presented the 础峁嘘惫谤补迟补 movement as devoid of any kind of rituals. After the end of the Second World War (1939鈥�1945), he developed a passion for innovative concepts relating to all aspects of life and engaged in many experiments in attempting to apply them, for peaceful co-existence, emotional control, change in the education system and world peace (Mah膩praj帽a, 2005b: 272鈥�75).

罢耻濒补蝉墨 looked into the prevalent progressive ideas^[1] such as meditation. He expressed:

Many people come to us. They come with devotion and hope, what are we able to offer them? If their life does not transform, what purpose does it serve? We should take an initiative in such a way that we empower them to learn to live. They should lead a life for the wellbeing of oneself and society (Mah膩praj帽a, 2010a: 76-77).

This contemplation in the 1940s, which manifested as the 础峁嘘惫谤补迟-movement, a non-sectarian initiative, reveals his mixed passion of 鈥渨hat we can offer鈥� and moving 鈥渂eyond religious boundaries鈥�. He concluded that Jaina religious doctrine and practice without any scientific authentication or support, while helpful for saints and holy persons residing in caves [solitude], appeared to be irrelevant for ordinary people in their day-today lives.

The very attitude of 罢别谤腻辫补苍迟丑补, Fl眉gel notes:

In the Jain world, 膧c膩rya 罢耻濒补蝉墨 and Yuv腻肠腻谤测补 Mah膩praj帽a are renowned for their support of social reform, and in India generally for the promotion of universal social morality, through the non-sectarian so-called 补峁嘘惫谤补迟补, or small vow movement, and the 箩墨惫补苍补 惫颈箩帽腻苍补, or science of living, initiative (Fl眉gel, 2011: 25).

罢耻濒补蝉墨 increasingly emphasised a synthesis of science and spirituality, and held that one without the other was incomplete and closed the door to progress (Mah膩praj帽a, 1994a: 278鈥�9). In light of contemporary problems such as the caste system, dowry system and gender disparity, he believed in the necessity of the application of religion in the day-to-day conduct of Jainas and non-Jainas alike, rather than its confinement to typically religious arenas, such as temples, or to religious texts and scriptures.

After the independence of India from British colonial rule in August 1947, 罢耻濒补蝉墨 initiated a new movement of moral values for householders named 补峁嘘惫谤补迟补 腻苍诲辞濒补苍补 (a socio-spiritual movement related to small vows) on 2^nd March 1949 in Sard膩ra艣ahara. For the assimilation of these small vows of the 补峁嘘惫谤补迟补 movement, he believed that some practical aspects of spirituality were required, which could be easily followed by everyone, beyond any sectarian dogma (Mah膩praj帽a, 1994a: 6). To achieve this objective, 罢耻濒补蝉墨 was in search of innovative spiritual practices because vows alone did not lead to dispassion. Practical spiritual tools were needed to bring about a transformation of personality, and meditation seemed to fulfil this need. Hence, gradually new methods of meditation for the general public were conceived, tested and publicised. They were first introduced to the general public via residential camps focusing on the practice of small vows (补峁嘘惫谤补迟补 蝉腻诲丑补苍腻 艣颈惫颈谤补).^[2] During these 补峁嘘惫谤补迟补 蝉腻诲丑补苍腻 艣颈惫颈谤补, Mah膩praj帽a used to discuss moral values in detail, and some contemplative meditation practices, relaxation with self awareness (办腻测辞迟蝉补谤驳补), 测辞驳腻蝉补苍补 and 辫谤腻峁嚹乱腻尘补 were part of them^[3]. The rest of this chapter will attempt to ascertain 罢耻濒补蝉墨鈥檚 motivation for constructing a distinct system of Jaina meditation, and how this was formulated and implemented by his close collaborator and successor, Muni Nathamala (Yuv腻肠腻谤测补/膧c膩rya Mah膩praj帽a), between 1962鈥�1975.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

A. Jain presents a wide picture of the yoga spectrum through socio-political changes. She states that 鈥楾he 1960s provided ideal timing for global dissemination of such systems, since it witnessed the BritishAmerican counterculture and the lifting of immigration restrictions, especially to the United States, the United Kingdom, France鈥� (A. Jain, 2015: 76).

[2]:

Practices of 补峁嘘惫谤补迟补 and meditation were taught side by side during 补峁嘘惫谤补迟补 蝉腻诲丑补苍腻 艣颈惫颈谤补 (Interview with 厂惫腻尘墨 Dharm膩nanda at Delhi, Muni Sukhal膩la at L膩da峁噓峁�, 2015).

[3]:

Interview with Dharm膩nanda on 21 January 2015 at Delhi.