Verbs and preverbs in the Ayyatkar i Zareran
Journal name: Acta Orientalia
Original article title: Verbs and preverbs in the Ayyatkar i Zareran
ACTA ORIENTALIA is a journal focused on the study of Oriental languages, history, archaeology, and religions from ancient times to the present. The journal includes articles reviewed by a senior scholar in the relevant field.
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Bo Utas
Acta Orientalia:
(Founded in 1922 and published annually)
Full text available for: Verbs and preverbs in the Ayyatkar i Zareran
Year: 1976 | Doi: 10.5617/ao.5152
Copyright (license): CC BY 4.0
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Summary of article contents:
Introduction
The article "Verbs and Preverbs in the Ayyatkar i Zareran" by Bo Utas examines the syntactic and morphological aspects of verbal forms in the Book Pahlavi text known as the Ayyatkar i Zareran. This text, representing one of the few surviving secular works from the Pahlavi literature, is a fragment of an old Iranian epic. Utas focuses on the complexities involved in analyzing verbal ideograms, phonetic complements, and the various uses of prefixes, ultimately shedding light on the intricate structure of Middle Persian verbs within this unique literary context.
The Complexity of Manuscript Variations
A significant challenge in the analysis of Ayyatkar i Zareran stems from the unreliability of the manuscripts, notably the Jamasp-Asana Codex MK dated to 1322 AD, which was itself heavily damaged. Utas emphasizes that the discrepancies in manuscript readings often necessitate emendation, based on interpretations from additional manuscripts and scholarly previous analyses. This situation exemplifies the difficulties of textual criticism within Middle Persian literature, where varied historical interpretations and incomplete records further complicate understanding the intended meanings behind the texts.
Verbal Forms: Ideograms and Phonetic Complements
The analysis of verbal forms in the Ayyatkar i Zareran reveals a prevalence of ideograms representing verbal forms, with 430 (or 75%) written phonetically and only 140 (25%) in other forms. The text predominantly utilizes present tense forms, constituting a majority, suggesting a narrative style that embodies a "praesens historicum." This observation points to the text's dynamic oral tradition, highlighting the literary decision to convey action vividly through present forms while engaging with past events.
Prefixes and Their Functions
Another critical focus of Utas's analysis is the role of prefixes, particularly the preverb "be-." He classifies various usages of "be-" within the text's verbal forms鈥攕ome as grammatical particles, while others retain lexical significance. The study categorizes examples of "be-" followed by present, past, and imperative forms, showcasing its flexible function within the structure of Middle Persian verbs. This multifaceted role illustrates how prefixes can influence the aspect and meaning of actions described in the narrative.
The Issue of Ligature Endings
Utas also delves into the ongoing debate surrounding the interpretation of verbal ideogram endings, particularly the ligatures -x鈧� and -x鈧�. Scholars have proposed various interpretations, including connections to existing verbal forms in later languages. This unresolved question highlights the complexities of analyzing ancient texts and the need for comparative linguistic studies to enhance understanding. By examining actual instances from Ayyatkar i Zareran, Utas suggests that the evidence leans toward these ligatures functioning as present indicative endings, although this conclusion remains tentative amidst scholarly discourse.
Conclusion
In conclusion, Bo Utas's article significantly contributes to the field of Middle Persian studies by analyzing the verbal forms and structures within the Ayyatkar i Zareran. Through careful examination of manuscript challenges, the prevalence of ideograms, the varied functions of prefixes, and the complexities surrounding ligature endings, Utas not only clarifies specific aspects of this text but also underscores the broader implications for understanding the linguistic and literary characteristics of Pahlavi literature. His findings invite further research to resolve ongoing ambiguities and deepen comprehension of this fascinating period in Iranian literary history.
FAQ section (important questions/answers):
What challenges are encountered when studying the Ayyatk盲r i Zareran?
The primary challenges include the unreliability of manuscript material due to historical sloppiness from copyists and uncertainty regarding the text's time of composition, making it difficult to perform a thorough analysis.
What is the significance of the Ayyatk盲r i Zareran in literature?
The Ayyatk盲r i Zareran holds a unique position as one of the few surviving secular works in Pahlavi literature, being a verse fragment of an old Iranian epic cycle that connects earlier literary traditions.
How many total verbal forms are in the Ayyatk盲r i Zareran?
In the Ayyatk盲r i Zareran, there are 581 total verbal forms identified, with significant distinctions present in their orthographic representation, including both phonetic and ideographic writing.
What percentage of verbal forms are written phonetically in AZ?
Approximately 25% of the verbal forms in the Ayyatk盲r i Zareran are written phonetically, while the remaining 75% are represented with ideograms, showcasing different levels of orthographic representation.
What is the role of the prefix 'be-' in the text?
The prefix 'be-' appears with various verbal forms in the text, potentially functioning either as a grammatical particle denoting aspect or as a preverb with lexical significance, depending on the context.
What difficulties arise from the interpretations of verbal endings?
Interpretations of verbal endings like -x鈧� and -x鈧� remain problematic, leading to debates among scholars regarding their exact functions within the context of verbal forms represented in the Ayyatk盲r i Zareran.
What are the main types of prefixes used in the Ayyatk盲r?
The main prefixes observed include negation (ne-), the perfective prefix (be-), and other lexical preverbs such as andar-, apak-, and fra膷-, which are prominent throughout the Ayyatk盲r i Zareran.
Glossary definitions and references:
Oriental and Historical glossary list for 鈥淰erbs and preverbs in the Ayyatkar i Zareran鈥�. This list explains important keywords that occur in this article and links it to the glossary for a better understanding of that concept in the context of History, Linguistics, Religion, Philosophy, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism etc.
1) Antar:
In the Ayyatkar i Zareran, 'andar' appears as a preverb used in verbs like 'andar-拧ut' indicating movement or transition into something. It is cited as andar- in multiple context-specific verbs, providing a spatial or directional nuance to actions in the narrative.
2) Future:
'Future' tense is depicted with the use of present indicative forms in the text, suggesting anticipated actions or prophecies. The prefix 'be-' along with present indicative verbs is sometimes used to express a future sense, highlighting actions to come.
3) Confusion (Confused):
'Confused' states appear in the context of ideograms with multiple possible readings, e.g., interpreting -x鈧� as either -yt or -et, leading to contentious scholarly debates.
4) Discussion:
The 'discussion' on verbal forms in Ayyatkar i Zareran by Utas involves analyzing different verb forms, prefixes, and endings. Varied interpretations of complements like -yt, -d, and -x鈧� form core parts of these philological discussions.
5) Danam:
'Danam,' meaning 'I know,' is a recurring present indicative form in the text, often found in direct discourse. It is notably used in sections where characters express knowledge or certainty about future events or current situations.
6) Asana (Ashana):
Jamasp-Asana's 'Codex MK' forms the base manuscript for the investigation of Ayyatkar i Zareran. Despite being worm-eaten and unreliable in some parts, Codex MK is a critical text for philological analysis in the study of Middle Persian.
7) Horse:
The term 'horse' is referenced in multiple contexts including in direct combat scenarios where characters dismount or engage in battle-related actions. For example, the narrative mentions 'be-ni拧inam u to pitar' when discussing dismounting from a horse to assist a character.
8) Agent:
[see source text or glossary: Agent]
9) King:
Throughout Ayyatkar i Zareran, the 'king' plays a central role, often depicted in significant actions or speeches. King Vi拧tasp, for example, issues commands and is represented in both direct discourse and narrative passages, providing moral and strategic guidance.
10) Book:
The Ayyatkar i Zareran exists as part of Pahlavi 'Book' literature, an invaluable resource for understanding secular narratives within Zoroastrian culture and Middle Persian language constructs. It stands out as a link between Avesta fragments and later epic compositions.
11) Existence:
[see source text or glossary: Existence]
12) Religion:
'Religion' is a fundamental theme in the Ayyatkar i Zareran, with characters often discussing or defending the Mazdean faith. The term appears in phrases like 'en den be-ne-hilet,' indicating a commitment to not abandoning one's religious beliefs.
13) Literature:
The Ayyatkar i Zareran occupies a unique place in Pahlavi 'literature,' blending poetical narrative with historical and mythical elements. Its study helps bridge the gap between ancient Zoroastrian texts and later Persian literary traditions.
14) Language:
The analysis of Ayyatkar i Zareran provides insights into the Pahlavi 'language,' especially its verb forms, preverbs, and the use of ideograms. Studies like this contribute to understanding the linguistic transition from Middle to New Persian.
15) Eternal:
The concept of 'eternal' or everlasting is invoked in the narrative, especially in prayers and prophecies. Phrases like 'n谩m 么far膬y [of] yavet谩n ro膷谩n' refer to the eternal fame or perpetual aspects linked with divine or heroic attributes.
16) Nature:
[see source text or glossary: Nature]
17) Copper:
'Copper' features in prophetical and visionary imagery within the text. Constructs of copper fortresses or gates imply strength and durability, as seen when characters plan the construction of defensive structures using this material.
18) Desire:
'Desire' in the narrative is expressed with terms like 'kame(h),' often in contexts where characters convey their yearning or wish for something, such as wanting death over dishonor or accomplishing certain tasks in life or battle.
19) Asman (Ashman):
'Asman,' or sky, represents the celestial sphere in the Ayyatkar i Zareran. For instance, the phrase 'be o asman 拧avet' relates actions or events taking place under the sky, often used poetically to set the scene.
20) Spear:
The 'spear' is a recurring weapon in Ayyatkar i Zareran's battle scenes. It is mentioned in various contexts including magical enchantment and combat tactics, exemplifying the martial aspects of the narrative.
21) Death:
References to 'death' permeate Ayyatkar i Zareran, both in actual events and as metaphors. Characters face mortality in battle or express wishes for death through phrases like 'be-murt-+ham,' reflecting the epic's tragic dimensions.
22) Rhyme:
Poetic 'rhyme' is significant in preserving the original verse composition of Ayyatkar i Zareran. The narrative shows remnants of rhythmic and rhyming patterns, crucial for understanding the text's literary and aesthetic qualities.
23) Epic:
Ayyatkar i Zareran is part of an 'epic' cycle containing heroic deeds and mythological themes, akin to other great epics like 艩ah-namah. Its epic nature is seen in its narrative style and thematic elements such as war, honor, and fate.
24) Camp:
'Camp' references appear in tactical scenarios within the text. The phrase 'ha膷 bunak be-ayend ka ev-b盲r 盲yend' describes movements and strategies involving camps, fundamental in the depiction of battle sequences.
25) Dane (Dan茅):
'Dane,' derived from 'danam,' means 'I know.' It embodies the theme of knowledge or awareness critical to character decisions, prophecies, and strategic discussions throughout the Ayyatkar i Zareran.
26) Bird:
'Bird' imagery appears in metaphorical contexts. For example, the text wishes for a character to be like a bird who falls into the sea instead of facing hardships, invoking freedom or escape from worldly troubles.
27) Iron:
'Iron' represents strength and resilience. The narrative includes 'an iron gate' as part of a defensive fortress. Such imagery symbolizes unyielding protection and strategic fortification.
28) Worm:
'Worm-eaten' describes the state of the primary manuscript Codex MK of the Ayyatkar i Zareran. This physical degradation necessitates cautious interpretation and reliance on copyists' later versions for reconstructing the text.
29) Star:
In poetic contexts, 'star' imagery like 'u gart [u] dut be-ni拧ast star u mah pat asman painak but' conveys celestial beauty and tranquility, contrasting the tumultuous earthly events.
30) Gate:
'Gate' signifies both literal and metaphorical entry points. In the text, commands to construct iron gates for fortresses symbolize defensive preparedness against impending threats.
31) Similarity:
'Similarity' is noted in comparative analyses within the manuscript texts, addressing the graphical resemblance of ligature endings like -x鈧� to other characters, thereby informing orthographic interpretations.
32) Separation (Separateness, Separate, Separated):
'Separation' refers to dividing elements within the text's content, such as paragraph distinctions or differentiating meanings derived from preverb usage, as seen in the expressions containing preverb be.
33) Marriage:
'Marriage' is mentioned metaphorically, likening agreements to a solemn union. Terms relating to marital union are used to underscore binding commitments or resolutions among characters.
34) Practice:
Writing 'practice' in the manuscript shows certain verbs and preverbs consistently represented phonetically or ideographically, important for understanding Middle Persian orthographic conventions.
35) External:
[see source text or glossary: External]
36) Obstacle:
'Obstacle' is prominent among the challenges faced in textual analysis, such as the manuscript's condition and the inconsistencies of copyists, termed by Henning as notorious sloppiness.
37) Chariot:
'Chariot' is part of Zarer's preparation for battle as referenced in the text, marking significant moments in the story's developing martial narrative.
38) Disease:
[see source text or glossary: Disease]
39) Grammar:
The text deeply examines Middle Persian 'grammar,' focusing on verbal forms and complements. This includes detailed tabulations of forms like -yt and 鈥搕 and their syntactical implications.
40) Bombay:
'Bombay' refers to the location where Jamasp-Asana published the critical edition of Pahlavi Texts, including the Ayyatkar i Zareran, essential for academic reference.
41) Leaf (Leaves):
[see source text or glossary: Leaves]
42) Family:
'Family' is central to the narrative, with the title itself Ayyatkar i Zareran translating to Memoir of the Zarer Family, indicating the epic's focus on familial tales and legacies.
43) Throat:
'Throat' appears in visceral battle scenes, like when a character penetrates to the heart and removes earth from a throat, underscoring the combat's brutality.
44) Patan:
Preverbs like 'patan' or 'pat' (from 'patan: NTLWN') denote aspects of direction or motion in verb constructions, central to understanding the grammatical structure of verbal forms.
45) Kamar:
'Kamar' references bodily movement or parts in battle descriptions, where phrases like 'under the belt' capture martial skills or actions during combat sequences.
46) Magic:
The text includes 'magic' elements specifying enchanted weapons and spells, illustrated by terms like spears poisoned by devilish incantations, blending mystical with historical narrative.
47) Fight:
'Fight' underscores conflicts central to the epic. Characters鈥� martial engagements reveal culturally significant combat tactics, including personal duels and collective battles, essential to the tale's drama.
48) Earth:
'Earth' metaphorically suggests burial or grounding elements in the narrative. For instance, removing earth from a throat signifies intimate and desperate scenarios during battle sequences.
49) Juice:
'Juice' appears in combative contexts, particularly referencing poison like 'zahr-dist谩k pat 谩p i banj谩k' highlighting the tale's intricate details in warfare depiction.
50) Frame:
Text passages concerning 'frame' strategy or structure, illustratively traced as sections or literal frameworks, support logical narrative flow and thematic coherence within the epic.
51) Heart:
'Heart' symbolizes life and valor in the combat narratives. Actions like 'penetrating to the heart' during battles outline personal bravery and the mortal stakes involved.
52) White:
The color 'white' contrasts within battle narratives, symbolizing purity or exceptional elements, such as white shoes signifying distinctiveness or sacredness among characters.
53) Night:
'Night' battles or transitions like 'if it is night or day' from setting up tents, mark time movement critical to structuring epic events and foretelling shifts in story phases.
54) Sight:
'Sight' is depicted in sensory descriptions like Bastvar seeing his father's remains, which evoke powerful emotional responses and deepen the narrative's poignant realities.
55) Truth:
'Truth,' often invoked in oaths and prophecies, defines integrity and honesty as fiercely valued traits among characters, guiding their decisions and actions.
56) Peace:
'Peace' is a goal juxtaposed against constant warfare. Honorifics like 'champion of peace' for characters who struggle towards order and harmony highlight desired societal ideals.
57) Smoke:
'Smoke' parallels turmoil in scenes where it 'settles' when battles cease, providing vivid imagery of battlefield chaos transitioning to silence, underscoring narrative shifts.
58) Blood:
'Blood,' central to combat depictions like 'blood shed in battle,' signifies loyalty and sacrifice, essential to understanding the personal and cultural stakes of heroic narratives.
59) Cycle:
'Cycle' references the Ayyatkar i Zareran's place within the broader 'Iranian epic cycle,' linking its fragmented verses to larger literary corpuses and historical narratives.
60) Realm:
'Realm,' as in geographic or dominion space like the Iranian dominion, is crucial in marking territorial conflicts and tribal or royal domains central to the epic鈥檚 framework.
61) Hani:
'Hani' references thematic or setting elements like 'hani evak arjasp,' defining singular or focal points within descriptions crucial for the narrative progression or thematic emphasis.
62) Daru:
[see source text or glossary: Daru]
63) Hemp:
'Hemp' juice is cited in the narrative as part of magical poisons or enchantments, reinforcing the tale鈥檚 supernatural elements blended with its historical and martial contexts.
64) Soul:
'Soul' metaphorically conveys deep existential or spiritual reflections within the narrative. It underscores characters' struggles with fate and the metaphysical questions of existence.
65) Tree:
'Tree,' particularly in simile phrases like 鈥榯ree of soul,鈥� ties to natural imagery used poetically to signify growth or strength, invoking a deeper connection to life and nature.
66) Boar:
'Boar' symbolizes strength and ferocity in metaphors likening battle or characters to wild boars, emphasizing raw power and combat prowess essential in battle descriptions.
67) Hell:
'Hell' represents evil or malevolent forces in descriptions like spears poisoned with the essence of devils in hell, depicting the malevolence and supernatural aspects in the narrative.
68) Moon:
'Moon,' paired with 'star' in describing tranquil skies post-battle, serves vivid poetic imagery contrasting the chaos of terrestrial conflicts with celestial calmness.
69) Dust:
In post-battle scenes, 'dust and smoke' settling symbolize the turmoil鈥檚 end, shifting towards serene imagery marking narrative transitions from combat chaos to silence.
70) Hope:
[see source text or glossary: Hope]
71) Dead:
'Dead,' as described in dirges or mortal combat outcomes, underscores the tragic aspects of the epic's battles, reflecting cultural perspectives on mortality and heroism.