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Below is appended a list of important officers and offices who figure from time to time in the Chronicle. We may add that though a comprehensive list of administrative terms occurring in the Chronicle has already been drawn up by Pandit, yet it has been felt that some of these may be more closely analysed in their contexts. Abhyantara 5 The term has been taken to mean a 'Court of the Interior' by Pandit and 'inner Court' by Stein. Kane, 1. R.T I, iv, 588. 2. 3. Ibid Ibid., I, iv, 588. Ibid I, V, 167. 4. Pandit, R.S., Rajatarangini by Kalhana, pp. 737-39. 5. Rajatarangini by Kalhana, II, viii, 426, 680, 1546.

- 510 however, takes it to refer to 'officers specially intimate or in close contact with the king' Since the term has explicitly been used to denote ministers and feudatories of the inner court of the king² and not as a personal adjective, we are inclined to treat it as a Court of the Interior. Adhikarana and Adhikaranalekhaka 3 The term Adhikarana, meaning an office, is too well-known. Both Stein and Pandit have taken adhikaranalekhaka to denote an official recorder'. The context in which the term has been used in the Chronicle indicates that an adhikaranalekhaka was a recorder of deeds of transactions and was paid some fee or commission on that account by the party or parties concerned. Akshapatala and Akshapataladhisa The term akshapatala has been taken by Pandit to refer to the 'accounts office' while Stein, though uncertain about its exact meaning, suggests its probable meaning as the 'office of the 1. Kane, P.V., History of Dharmasastra, III, p. 978. 2. Rajatarangini by Kalhana R.T., II, viii, 1546. 3. Ibid., II, vi, 38-39. 4. Ibid., I, v, 301 (Stein's note), 389.

511 Accountant-General'. However, at one place, Kalhana has used the term to indicate an office where royal gifts were recorded? As such, we would rather take it to mean a record-office? The officer in-charge of it was known as Akshapataladhisa and the office was one of such high importance as to be coveted by ministers? Asthana, Asthaniya Asthana has been taken to mean a 'court' or 'assembly' by Pandit and a 'council' by Stein t Since the term Asthaniya has been used to denote a 'councillor' elsewhere, we would take Asthana to refer to the king's court or 'durbar' in the presentday terminology. The Asthaniya would thus be a councillor or member of the royal court. Attapatibhaga The office of the Attapatibhaga was created by Sankaravarman obviously as a branch of the revenue office where taxes and tithes from the markets and shops were deposited. 1. Rajatarangini by Kalhana2. Rajatarangini by Kalhana, I, v, 397-98. cf. Beni Prasad, State in Anc. India, p. 300, who, on the authority of Fleet, has interpreted the term as a record-office. 3. Rajatarangini by Kalhana, I, v, 389. 4. Pandit, R.S., Rajatarangini by Kalhana, p. 737%; Stein, I, vii, 85-86; iv, 62 n. 5. Rajatarangini by Kalhana, I, vii, 15053 II, viii, 1620. 6. Ibid., I, v, 167.

512 Bahyali We have seen that the abhyantara courts functioned like the 'Durbar-i-Khasil of the Mughal times. Bahya or Bahyali would, therefore, refer to the 'outer court' or the 'Durbar-i-Am' of mediaeval days. Danapattaka The Danapattaka was obviously a 'deed of gift' or grant, a charter from the king's office (akshapatala) recorded by the pattopadhyaya or official scribe of such grants and given to the donee to stand proof of his ownership. Dandanayaka The term, used only in one canto of the Chronicle, refers to a 'Prefect of the Police', whose duties might have been similar to those of 'City-Kotwals' of later times. It should be noted that variations of this nomenclature, e.g., mahadandanayaka, Sarvadandanayaka, maha sarvadandanayaka and mahaprachandadandanayaka 5 were prevalent in other parts of the country from the 1. Rajatarangini by Kalhana, I, iv, 623 vii, 385. 2. Ibid., I, v, 397-98. 3. Ibid., I, vii, 951. 4. Allahabad Pillar Ins. of Samudragupta (C.I.I.,iii) 5. Beni Prasad, State in Anc. India, p. 295. The learned scholar, however, interprets the term to mean a judicial officer.

- 513 time of the golden days of the Guptas. In Kashmir, however, Mitrasarman, the Minister for Peace and War, was awarded the panchamahasabdas, but mahadandanayaka is not one of them. Harishena, the Minister for Peace and War under the mighty Samudragupta, is stated to have held the rank of a mahadandanayaka? Dhanadhyaksha Prior to the administrative reforms introduced by Jalauka, the 'Royal Treasurer' was known as dhanadhyaksha? Literally, the term would indicate a 'Superintendent of the Treasury'. Dharmadhikarana and Dharmadhyaksha Dharmadhikarana 3 was the "High Court of Justice' while Dharmadhyaksha 4 was the Chief Judge prior to the reforms of Jalauka. Closely connected with this office was that of rajasthana, which we shall notice below. Divira The word divira 5 is held by Stein to have been derived from the Persian 'dibir and means a Allahabad Pillar Ins. of Samudragupta (C.I.I. iii) R.T Rajatarangini by Kalhana, I, 1, 119. 1. 2. 3. Ibid 4. Ibid., I, iv, 588. Ibid I, 1, 119. 5. Ibid Ibid., I, v, 1773 vii, iii, 119.

- 514- 'Secretary', though alsewhere he translates it as a clerk? According to Pandit also, it meant a 'clerk', which appears to be the correct meaning. The Lokaprakasa refers to various types of clerks attached to different offices, e.g., ganjadivira, gramadivira, nagaradivira, etc., as pointed out by Stein. Dvaradhikara, Dvaradhikarin, Dvaradhipa, Dvaradhisvara, Dvaranayaka and Dvarapati The term 'dvaradhikara² refers to the charge of the gates and passes allowing access to and from the kingdom of Kashmir. The post was of utmost importance and the Dvaradhikarin or Dvaradhipa with slight variations in his nomenclature noted above was "the high officer who held charge of the passes leading into Kashmir"4 We have already noted that, according to Kshemendra, the Vishayas were governed by Margapatis; as such their position would become slightly anomalous in view of the high rank of the Dvaradhipas. We believe that Dvaradhipas were superior to the Margapatis 1. Rajatarangini by Kalhana, II, v, viii, 131. 2. Ibid., I, vii, 2163 of Stein in his note on I, v, 214.has wrongly referred to the term as occurring in verse 217 (p. 213, note). Ibid., v, 214; vi, 179 etc. : vii, 216, etc., II, viii, 21, 178, etc. .T., I, v, 214 n.

515 and, as apparent from their 'soldierly qualities' and responsibilities of protecting the passes (one dvaradhipa fell fighting while protecting the 'gate' against the Khasas); 3) were directly responsible to the king. The Margapatis, on the other hand, may have had to perform civil and judicial duties as well in areas within their charge. Ganja, Brihadganjadhipa, Chalaganja, Javakaraganja, Sindhuganja, Ganjavara, Ganjesa The word gania² has been taken to mean 'treasury' by Pandit and Stein, the latter having also translated it as a 'fund' in one context. It has been stated in the Chronicle that a mobile treasury (chalaganja) was created by Jayapida to meet the expenses of the army on conquering expeditions? But it appears that special funds could be created by high treasury officers also in their own names as apparent from the terms like Sindhuganja, and Jayakaraganja, obviously after finding out some novel methods of levying fresh imposts on the people. The officers in charge of the gania were designated Ganjadhipa? 1. Rajatarangini by Kalhana I, v, 214 n. 2. Ibid I, iv, 589; vii, 125-26. 3. Ibid I, vii, 125. Ibid., I, iv, 589. Ibid I, vi, 266. 4. 5. 6. Ibid I, vii, 125. 7. Ibid II, viii, 2423.

516 and Ganiavara or Ganjesa! It is interesting to note that the word ganjavara has also been used for a treasurer in an inscription of Mahakshetrapa Sodasa? It appears that there were several ganjas or treasuries at different places and the main one was designated as Brihadganja Grihakritya, Grihakrtyadhikara and Grihakrityadhikarin The office of Grihakritya 4 was created by Sankaravarman evidently to meet the mounting expenses in domestic affairs and the king had appointed five diviras or clerks (secretaries according to Stein) and a ganjavara or treasurer to man the department 5 The revenues of this office also included 'fees levied at certain domestic events such as marriages, vainopavitas etc., which have collectively been called mangalyadanda Other means through which the income of this revenue office was enhanced were changes in weights and measures, fines on villages (perhaps imposed collectively on villagers) and other imposts? The officer in charge (grihakrityadhikarin) of this office was appointed directly by the king? 1. Rajatarangini by Kalhana2. E.I 3. R.T I, v, 17731, vi, 266. IX, p. 247. II, viii, 2423. 4. Ibid , I, v, 167, 176-77. 5. Ibid , I, v, 177. 6. Ibid I, v, 167 n; II, viii, 1428. 7. Ibid " I, v, 176. 8. Ibid I, v, 177, 301.

517 Kampana, Kampanadhipati, Kampanadhisa, Kampanesa, Kampanodgrahaka We have already noticed above that, in relation to Kampanal or 'army' these various terms, barring the last mentioned, referred to the chief commander of the armed forces. Kampanodgrahaka 2 has been taken by Stein to refer to 'some official connected with the 'army' while Pandit interprets it to mean a 'recruiting officer'. In view of the latter part of the term (udgrahaka), we are inclined to fall in line with the suggestion of the latter. Kayastha, Gramakayastha, Asvaghasakayastha, etc. The entire class of government officials of the subordinate ranks have been grouped into the general term Kayastha 3 by Kalhana, and even a casual perusal of the Chronicle would make it clear that the Chronicler had no love for them and their oppressive and nefarious deeds? Stein, after a careful study of the Chronicle, had arrived at the conclusion that "the great mass of them was undoubtedly Brahman by caste...." 5 which indicates 1. Rajatarangini by Kalhana, v, 447 n; vii, 365, 1319; vii, 575. 2. Ibid., II, viii, 1430 n. 3. Rajatarangini by Kalhana, I, iv iv , 90, 621, 629; v, 265; vii, 1226 vili, 131. 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid., I, p. 19.

518 that they had not emerged as a caste or class in the Valley till the period under review. Most of them seem to have been connected intimately with the revenue department from the lowest level of the villages (where they were designated as gramakayasthas 1) to the higher offices through which they were able to induce the king or kings of the Valley to evolve fresh methods of taxation? Evidently, there were ranks in this class of officials and we find Durlabhavardhana, the founder of the illustrious Karkota dynasty, raised to the office of the Asvaghasakayastha According to Pandit, the term meant 'the official in charge of horse-fodder' or 'official-in-charge of cavalry stores! 4 Stein, however, has pointed out that, according to usage, fodder for horses collected from various areas was state-property and a tax was levied on it and collected by an employee of the State. This would suggest that the duties of the Asvaghasakayastha not only comprised looking after fodder for the royal involved cavalry but also collection of taxes due on it from private sale. This would fit in suitably with the application of the term Kayastha in the latter part of the designation (asvaghasakavastha). 1. Rajatarangini by Kalhana, I, v, 265. 2. Ibid., I, iv, 621, 629. 3. Ibid., I, iii, 489. 4. Pandit, R.S., Rajatarangini by Kalhana, iii, 489, p. 739. 5. Rajatarangini by Kalhana, I, iii, 489 n.

- 519 Mahabhandagara, Mahapratiharapida, Mahasadhanabhaga, Mahasandhivigraha and Maha savasala These five titles were created by Emperor Lalitaditya and conferred upon Mitrasarman, his Minister for Peace and War, in appreciation of his services! These were collectively known as panchamahasabda² the significance of which term has already been noticed by us in its proper context. Nagaradhikrita, Nagaradhipa The prefect of the city was designated as Nagaradhikrita or Nagaradhipa³ and, at times, there were as many as four city-prefects looking after the administration of the town? It appears that the city-prefects were also entrusted with the collection of revenues from the city, presumably from householders, markets, etc., within its bounds. The appointment to this highly responsible office was made directly by the king as the city-prefect was also in-charge of the defence of the city besides policing it and dealing with thieves and robbers? It is possible that the Nagaradhipa was helped in his revenue- 1. R.T I, iv, 142-43. 2. Ibid I, iv, 81; vi, 70. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid 5. Ibid 6. Ibid I, vi, 70; II, viii, 631-42. vii, 1542. 7. Ibid I, vii, 480.

- 520 collections indirectly by another class of officers called nayakas whose duties we shall notice below. Navaka, Arthanayaka Harsha. The A special class of officers known as Navakasl and Arthanayakas² came into being during the reign of One of the Navakas, it is interesting to note, was appointed to realise tax on night soil, presumably because of its compost value? designation nayaka would refer to a class of officers who were appointed by the ministers to raise the revenues of the State The Arthanayaka, in the particular context, was appointed directly by the king in addition to his ministerial duties and was in-charge of realising revenue-dues from temples, religious endowments, etc., and he had also the authority to confiscate villages presumably granted to them for their proper maintenance and worship. Parshad, Parshada, Parishadya, Dvijaparshad The term Parshad is obviously the same as its more current form parishad in Sanskrit literature? 1. Rajatarangini by Kalhana2. 1234 II, viii, 1102. Ibid., II, viii, 1104, 1106. 3. Ibid., I, vii, 1107. 4. Ibid., I, vii, 1102. 5. Ibid., I, vii, 1103-04. 6. Monier-Williams, M., Sans.-Eng. Dictionary, p. 609, col. 3.

521 It occurs for the first time in the Chronicle in reference to a corporation or assembly of Brahmanas (dvijaparshad)1 and has subsequently been used to denote a corporation of the Brahmanas or Purohitas? A member of such a corporation was known as a Parshada³ or a Parishadya That the priestly community in Kashmir was well-organised into parshads is quite evident from the fact that its members (parishadyas) claimed joint ownership of all property attached to, and within, the shrine or the temple The priestly corporations carried considerable weight in the political affairs of the Valley and this hardly needs any repetition here. Through the very effective weapon of 'solemn fasts' (prayopavasa); they often made the kings bow down to their wishes? Their voice in the choice of a successor to the throne has already been noticed by us. Rajasthana, Rajasthanadhikarabhak, Bahvarajasthanadhikarabhaka, Rajasthaniya Rajasthana appears to have been a high court of justice, perhaps dealing with cases of the city - 1. R.T I, 1, 87. 2. Ibid , I, ii, 132%; v, 171. 3. Ibid I, iv, 205. Ibid., I, v, 466. 4. Ibid 5. Ibid., I, vii, 1082-88. Ibid 6. Ibid., I, iv, 82; v, 468; vii, 13, 1088; 7 Ibid. 709, 900-902, etci 8. Ibid., I, vii, 601; II, viii, 573, 1046, 1082.

522 as indicated in the use of the term rajasthanadhikara¹ for holding that office? Bahyarajasthanadhikarabhak would, therefore, mean the chief judge of a court of justice dealing with cases outside the jurisdiction of the city. A Rajasthaniya, thus, in all probability, was like the Chief Justice of our present times. Seda The term seda ³ has been used to designate an 'account office' and, from the context, it appears that there were several account offices of the same type.. Stheya While the Rajasthana, as discussed above, functioned as a high court of justice, a number of judges (Sthevas) 4 seem to have dispensed justice in smaller courts. A Stheya was supposed to be impartial and 'free from love or hatred 15 Another designation of a judge was Tantrapati 1. R.T II, viii, 181. 2. Ibid , II, viii, 2557. 3. Ibid I, iv, 691; II, viii, 576. 4. 5. 6. Ibid Ibid., I, 1, 7. Ibid I, 1, 7. Ibid., II, viii, 2422. Ibid