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Each Vishaya was comprised of several villages, the village being the lowest rung in the administrative scheme. Village administration was carried on by the Skandakas who were assisted by Gramakayasthas, the latter being also responsible for the maintenance of village records (like the present-day Lekhapalas) with the help of Gramadivirast the The Skandakas, the Gramakayasthas and Gramadiviras were paid officers of ren the State and received their salaries from out of the 1. Kshemendra, Narmamala, I, 127. 2. Rajatarangini by Kalhana, I, v, 175. 3. Ibid. 4. It has generally been held by scholars that gramakayasthas (Beni Prasad, State in Anc.India, p. 433) or gramadiviras (Ray, S.C., Early Hist. & Culture of Kashmir, p. 131) were responsible for administration in the villages. But, as pointed out by Kane, (Hist. of Dharmasastra, III, p. 987), there is a distinction between the terms divira and Kayastha. We may be permitted to offer another suggestion in the light of Kalhana's statement (Rajatarangini by Kalhana, I, v, 175). Since he mentions Skandakas first and gramakayasthas afterwards as officials (Rajatarangini by Kalhana, I, v, 175), we may treat the former as (Conta.)

An - 507 realisations of village-revenues! Besides paying their dues to the state-officers, the villagers were also called upon to provide forced labour like carrying of loads, etc., or, in default, had to pay fines at the rate of current prices of commodities in the market? this obnoxious practice of forced labour is the fact that even the Brahmanas, who had enjoyed certain social and legal privileges by virtue of their birth in that particular community all over the sub-continent, were not exempt from this type of "begar 13 What is of special interest regarding The first glimpse of the actual working and expansion of the administrative machinery together with its departments and offices is offered by Kalhana in his narrative of the reforms during the reign of Jalauka of the five principal officers of the State mentioned in that context, two - the Revenue 1. 2. 3. We superior to the latter. The term gramadivira, if we are to follow Kane's suggestion, would then mean 'a village clerk' (op. cit.). are, therefore, inclined to treat Skandakas as officers in charge of the villages, who were assisted by gramakayasthas in revenuecollections and had gramadiviras or villageclerks under them. Rajatarangini by Kalhana, I, v, 176, 177. Ibid., I, v, 171-74; vii, 1088. Ibid Ibid., I, vii, 1088. 4. Ibid., I, 1, 118-20.

- 508 Superintendent (dhanadhyaksha) and the Treasurer (Kosadhyaksha) - are worthy of our notice in the present context? It is, however, of interest to note that, prior to the extensive conquests of Jalauka (as narrated by Kalhana), Kashmir has been called a 'mandala indicating that, formerly, it was a petty state and that its principal officers were few in numbers. With the expansion in the extent of the boundaries of Kashmir, the need for a more comprehensive machinery of administration was felt; hence its expansion and reorganisation into eighteen departments or offices (Karmasthanas)? Subsequently, though minor offices had been added 4 to these eighteen existing ones, another serious attempt to streamline the administration was made by Lalitaditya, whose extensive conquests and glory are reflected in the high-sounding phraseology used to indicate the offices created by him? And it is quite possible 6 that the office of the Mahabhandagara came to replace or include the earlier office of the Kosadhyaksha. With the passage of time, there was 1. Rajatarangini by Kalhana, I, 1, 118-20. 2. Ibid. 3. Ibid. 4. Ibid. iii, 489. 5. Ibid I, iv, 141-43. 6. Ibid

509 further increase in the bureaucracy and its offices 1 and even the need of a mobile treasury (chalaganja) was felt to serve on conquering expeditions? Similar expansion is to be noticed during the reign of the Utpalas when the offices of grihakritya (dealing with the domestic affairs of royal household) and attapatibhaga (royal share of the market) came into existence? The process continued in the days of the Loharas and Kalhana furnishes more or less nearcontemporary account of the progressive growth in the numbers of new officers, both high and low.