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The northern frontiers of the sub-continent of India are guarded by the lofty and snow-capped Himalayas which stretch from the westernmost extremities of the country to the eastern and beyond. These natural barriers have, in the northwestern portions, several passes which have afforded ways for contact, trade and commerce, cultural intercourse and also for military invasions. Towards the north - rather the north-north-west - lie the Pamir Plateaus which are the meeting-grounds of several countries. Stretching from the southern extremities of the Plateau and south of the Karakoram Ranges lies one of the world's most wonderful pieces of scenic land known as Kashmir. At present, the eastern and north-eastern boundaries of the state of Kashmir are coterminus with

those of the People's Republic of China. The northern and north-western regions have common frontiers both with China and Pakistan. Towards the south-west, its frontiers meet with those of Pakistan, while in the south its hills slope into India, of which Kashmir has been an integral part since earliest times. The State is gifted with such rare, natural scenic beauty that it has been called virtually "a heaven on earth", Ever since the dawn of recorded history of the country, Kashmir has figured in its annals as an important limb of it. Its importance till the downfall of Hindu India is a matter of serious considerations for several obvious reasons. Its early history, however, suffers very much in the same way as the ancient history of India lacking in sufficient historical data for a reconstruction of its past. In the case of Kashmir, too, our difficulties are aggravated as it suffers most from the same defect. The reason is obvious; this tract of country has been continuously ravaged, its epigraphic evidence mostly destroyed and the monumental or artistic pieces have also suffered heavily at the hands of bigotry and religious fanaticism. Gifted as it is by nature,

- 3 it is equally so in so far as human beauty is concerned, and perhaps this has also contributed towards its chequered fate. The available sources or original authorities for an appraisal of its past can be counted on fingers and our knowledge of these is confined to literary data in the main. Fortunately, in spite of the ravages wrought by man and nature, literary evidence has been available for such a reconstruction. If a surveyor scans the physical map of the north and north-western regions of India, his eyes would strike at a portion set in a mass of high and black mountains. These mountainous regions form the elliptical Valley of Kashmir, named as 'Kashir' by its residents. The Valley has a well-grounded fame for something characteristic, if not unique, as it is superimposed by a girdle of lofty mountains. present States of Jammu and Kashmir occupy an area of about 82,258 square miles, extending from lat. 30掳17' to 36掳58' north and long. 73掳26' to. 1 The 80掳30' east. Their position and form are such that there is hardly a parallel to it in the whole of the Himalayas, barring the few 'duns' and the Valley of Nepal. At present, the State comprises portions of 2 1. India, 1963, p. 390. 2. Wadia, D.N., Geology of India, p. 435.

Jammu including the regions of Punch, Kashmir and Ladakh. The political boundaries of ancient Kashmir have frequently synchronised with the changing political conditions in the country from time to time. Ptolemy mentions Kashmir (Kaspeiria) as situated between the Darad land on the Indus and the land of the Kulindas on the Hyphasis (Beas) and further eastward. He also mentions that the region was 'held by the Kaspeiraeans'. The famous Chinese pilgrim, Hiuen Tsang, who visited the land in A.D. 631 and stayed there for about two years, places Kia-sheme-lo (Kashmir) between the Chenab and the Indus to the foot-hills of the Salt Range. According to him, the country was bounded by Urasa in the west, Taxila and Simhapura in the south-west and Punch 3 and Rajauri in the south. He mentions the country as being 7000 11 or 1166 miles in circuit. This must have been the extent of the empire of the contemporary emperor and not of the Kashmir Valley 1. Ptolemy, VII, 1, pp. 21, 40 ff, 42, 47, vide Stein, Rajatarangini., II, p. 351. 2. Ibid. 3. Beal, S., Si-Yu-Ki, p. 188. 4. Ibid.

5 Sp itself, which actually is only 3000 miles in circuit. Nature itself, when creating the great oval Valley of Kashmir and its encircling walls of high mountains, seems to have ensured to this territory a distinct geographical character. In the north and the west, the Valley is well guarded from the outer world by range after range of high mountains; on the south it is cut off from the Punjab by rocky barriers some 50 to 60 miles in width. The height of the Kashmir Valley is nowhere less than 5000 feet and the altitude assures a climate free from heat, so common to the rest of India. The contours of mountain ridges that enclose the Valley, vary considerably in height. The loftiest points are on the north-east where some peaks rise to close on 18,000 feet and the lowest ones are under 10,000 feet near the southern-most part of the oval. It is not the army of Kashmir but the high mountains that have often come to the defence of the Valley. Kalhana also speaks of Kashmir as unconquerable by force of soldiers due to the protection afforded by its high 2 1. Lawrence, W., The Valley of Kashmir, p. 12. 2. Drew, F., Jummoo and Kashmir Territories, p. 162.

1 - 6 mountain walls. However, the modern means of communications both by land and air have nullified the proud claims of the poet. The Pir Pantsal Range forms the southern and south-western boundary of Kashmir 2 and extends from Banihal Pass to the Valley of Vitasta. All important trade routes towards the Punjab cross this mountain barrier. Karnav, ancient Karnaha and Mount Haramukuta are in the northern mountain ranges. The small forts which have been built on mountain passes leading into the Valley are mentioned in the Chronicle as 'dvaras' (gates) or by the more specific term 'dranga' or 'dhakka'. Immediately outside Kashmir, the mountain regions, almost in every direction, were occupied by the refractory hill tribes. The northern region of Kashmir was in the hands of hardy Darads and the southern was held by the restless Khakhas (Khasas).