Amaravati Art in the Context of Andhra Archaeology
by Sreyashi Ray chowdhuri | 2018 | 90,477 words
This page relates 鈥楻eligious background of early Andhra Pradesh鈥� of the study on Amaravati Art in the Context of Andhra Archaeology, including museum exhibitions of the major archeological antiquities. These pages show how the Buddhist establishment of Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh) survived from 4th century BCE to 14th century CE. It includes references and translations of episodes of Buddha鈥檚 life drawn from the Avadanas and Jatakas which are illustrated in Amaravati art.
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Religious background of early Andhra Pradesh
It is undeniable that all the early centres of Andhra culture took a definite shape due to the Buddhist activities in the region. However, prior to Buddhism traces of other religious practices were visible in various archaeological centres of early 础苍诲丑谤补诲别艣补. A few words may be stated about the various religious practices prevalent in the region prior to the advent of Buddhism.
It may be mentioned that from Neolithic times several tribes like 狈腻驳补蝉, Mahishkas, 础艣惫补办补蝉 and Savaras practiced totemism. Totemism is an aspect of animism, which believes that force pervades the entire world. Around 顿丑腻苍测补办补峁璦办补 lived the 狈补驳腻蝉. With time the primitive practice of totemism receded to the background and the worship of Mother Goddess developed. The remains of a number of terracotta female figurines with child give indication of the prevalence of the cult of Mother Goddess in Andhra[1]. The existence of megalithic burials (Pl 13a) in various parts of Andhra signifies the belief in life after death. The belief in life after death and the worship of ancestors led to the cult of 驰补办峁蝉. It may be stated that 测补办峁 was the name of a tribe in Andhra.It was believed that the 测补办峁s dwelt in trees. The 测补办峁 tribe believed that the spirits of the deceased resided on trees and hence they started worshipping the trees. Later they became the followers of Buddhism. Br膩hma峁噄sm entered South India. Several literary texts like 厂耻迟迟补苍颈辫腻迟补 and Bhimasena 闯腻迟补办补 throw light on the prevalence of vedic religion in the 础苍诲丑谤补诲别艣补. Sutrak膩ras Baudh膩yana and Apastamba lived in Andhra during the 5th -4th centuries B.C.E and framed the rules and regulations regarding the recitation of Vedas and the performance of the vedic rituals.
Buddhism faced the antagonism from the people following the Brahmanical faith. The Brahmanical people called the Buddhist mound in Andhra as. 鈥�搁腻办蝉丑补蝉补驳耻诲颈濒耻鈥�. This term points to the existence of religious antagonism in the region[2]. The story of Bavari in 厂耻迟迟补苍颈辫腻迟补 gives indication of the entrance of Buddhism during the lifetime of Buddha.The Kathavatthu and Paramarthadipana supports the evidence of 厂耻迟迟补苍颈辫腻迟补. Archaeological remains endorse the literary evidences. Scholars are of the opinion that due to the untiring efforts of 础艣辞办补 Buddhism entered Andhra and enjoyed the position of state religion. The 13th Rock Edict of 础艣辞办补 mentions that the Andhras were within the 搁腻箩补 Visaya and already following Dhamma. But later excavations at 础尘补谤腻惫补迟墨 suggests the antiquity of Buddhism to pre-础艣辞办补n period. Similarly the paleography of the inscriptions on the relic casket and solid brick 蝉迟奴辫补 of Bha峁弓iprolu is pre-础艣辞办补n. The literary and the traditional accounts give important information regarding the rise and spread of Buddhism in Andhra. In this regard, mention may be made of Hiuen Tsang鈥檚 account which gives information of Buddha鈥檚 visit to Andhra. In addition to it the 闯腻迟补办补 story relating to Buddha鈥檚 previous births as Sumedha mention the city of 艢r墨 顿丑腻苍测补办补峁璦办补[3]. Further Padmasambhava mentions that Buddha was born as Padma-Sambhava in 顿丑腻苍测补办补峁璦办补. On the other hand, a Tibetan tradition mentions 艢腻办测补尘耻苍颈 as the promulgater of 碍腻濒补肠补办谤补 system in 顿丑腻苍测补办补峁璦办补.
From literary and archaeological sources, it can be surmised that local kings or chieftains of 础苍诲丑谤补诲别艣补 patronized Buddhism much before the time of 础艣辞办补. But 础艣辞办补 was primarily instrumental in propagating the religion on a large scale as a part of his missionary expedition, that is, Dhamma Vijaya[4].
Coastal Andhra became the hub of Andhra culture and this region became the seat of Buddhist culture in the centuries preceding and following the Christian era. This zone was studded with a number of Buddhist monuments. The Buddhist monasteries became the centres of education and learning[5].This can be understood from Hiuen Tsang鈥檚 study of Abhidhamma from Subhuti and Surya and in turn taught them the 惭补丑腻测腻苍补 principles at 顿丑腻苍测补办补峁璦办补. Further an inscription of Pallava Simhavarman at 础尘补谤腻惫补迟墨 state that the king listened to a discourse in this region.
础尘补谤腻惫补迟墨 Mah膩蝉迟奴辫补 in coastal Andhra excelled from the rest in magnitude, grandeur and creative genius. The scholars opined that in the neighbouring region of the 惭补丑腻肠补颈迟测补 of 础尘补谤腻惫补迟墨 lived a community of monks and in course of time 础尘补谤腻惫补迟墨 became a famous seat of the monastic culture[6]. The archaeological investigations support such an assumption. It can be stated that the earliest levels below the 惭补丑腻肠补颈迟测补 distinguished as Period IB is represented as an occupational layer with huts on posts. There is the indication of the settlement of monks initially from Eastern epicenters, that is, 痴补颈艣腻濒墨, 艢谤腻惫补蝉迟墨, 搁腻箩补griha and 碍耻艣颈苍补驳补谤补. Further remains of NBP Ware, bowls and dishes, Black and Red Ware suggests pre-Mauryan strata discovered at the 惭补丑腻箩补苍补辫补诲补 sites of North.
The Buddhist community mostly belonged to the 惭补丑腻蝉补峁単丑颈办腻 school. In fact, since the breakup of the 厂补峁単丑补 in the second council of Buddhism Andhra became a strong hold of the 惭补丑腻蝉补峁単丑颈办腻s. Two main divisions that arose in the second council was Thera and 惭补丑腻蝉补峁単丑颈办腻. The 惭补丑腻蝉补峁単丑颈办腻s were more liberal in their interpretation of 痴墨峁嚹乱补 and Dhamma[7]. The 惭补丑腻蝉补峁単丑颈办腻 school had many branches such as the Gokulika, Ekavyavaharik膩, Prajnaptiv膩da, Bahu艣rut墨ya, 尝辞办辞迟迟补谤补惫腻诲补 and Caityaka or 颁别迟颈测补惫腻诲补 school. N. Dutta opined that probably a section of the 惭补丑腻蝉补峁単丑颈办腻s attached great importance to the worship of 蝉迟奴辫补 or caitya as is found in the 惭补丑腻惫补蝉迟耻 and got the appellation of Caityaka[8]. During the early centuries of the Christian era, the Caityakas branched off from the 惭补丑腻蝉补峁単丑颈办腻s and became popular in Deccan. Evidence of this is found in inscriptions[9]. During the time of Vasisi峁環墨putra 笔耻濒耻尘腻惫颈 (135-163 CE) an inscription refers to the Mah膩蝉迟奴辫补 at 础尘补谤腻惫补迟墨 as Mah膩cetiya Chetikiy膩nam 苍颈办腻蝉补 parigahe[10]. Apart from the Chaityakas or Chetiyavadakas the inscription from 础尘补谤腻惫补迟墨 mention the name of another sect, that is, the 惭补丑腻惫补苍补艣别濒颈测补蝉 which also flourished sometime in 2nd century CE.
However, it was the Caityakas who possibly renovated the 蝉迟奴辫补 at 础尘补谤腻惫补迟墨 in 2nd century CE and also introduced the image of Buddha in a limited scale. Probably the 腻测补办补 platforms were also added in the same period. It is assumed that the influence of the Caityakas crossed the limits of 础苍诲丑谤补诲别艣补 and reached as far as west of Nasik. It is learnt that Mugudasa belonging to the lay community of the Chaityakas donated a cave for the monks. The 惭补丑腻惫补苍补艣别濒颈测补蝉 remained confined to 础尘补谤腻惫补迟墨 though their western branch 础辫补谤补尘补丑腻惫墨峁嚹伵沞濒颈测补蝉 rose to prominence at 狈腻驳腻谤箩耻苍补办辞峁囜笉补[11].
In course of time sub-schools like 笔奴谤惫补艣补颈濒补, Apara艣aila, 鲍迟迟补谤补艣补颈濒补, 搁腻箩补girika and 厂颈诲诲丑腻谤迟丑补办补 emanated from the Caityakas.[12] 顿丑腻苍测补办补峁璦办补 became the seat of 笔奴谤惫补艣补颈濒补s. Hiuen Tsang identified the monastic complex of 础尘补谤腻惫补迟墨 as the 笔奴谤惫补艣补颈濒补 Sanghar膩ma[13]. 狈腻驳腻谤箩耻苍补办辞峁囜笉补 became the seat of the 础辫补谤补艣补颈濒补蝉. Jaggayyapeta became the main centre of 鲍迟迟补谤补艣补颈濒补. Branches of 础辫补谤补艣补颈濒补蝉 had their settlements at 骋丑补峁囜弓补艣腻濒腻 and Peddavegi. Like 顿丑腻苍测补办补峁璦办补, Alluru became the stronghold of 笔耻谤惫补艣补颈濒补蝉. Siddharthika had their main centre in Guntupalli[14].
However, it should be stated that, along with the 惭补丑腻蝉补峁単丑颈办腻s, 础苍诲丑谤补诲别艣补 was also inhabited by the 罢丑别谤补惫腻诲颈苍蝉. 惭补丑颈艣腻艣补办补蝉, an orthodox sect of the 罢丑别谤补惫腻诲颈苍蝉 had their 惫颈丑腻谤补 in the 狈腻驳腻谤箩耻苍补办辞峁囜笉补 valley.
Archaeological antiquities reveal that 础苍诲丑谤补诲别艣补 witnessed three phases of Buddhism, that is, 罢丑别谤补惫腻诲补, 惭补丑腻测腻苍补 and 痴补箩谤补测腻苍补. Some of the early Buddhist centres like Vaddam膩nu, Nandalur, Tho峁璴ako峁囜笉a, Pavurallako峁囜笉a, Gopalapa峁璶am, Penumaka, Cha峁囜笉avaram, etc flourished as 罢丑别谤补惫腻诲补 centres until they faded into oblivion. 骋丑补峁囜弓补艣腻濒腻, Buddham, Alluru flourished on the principles of 惭补丑腻测腻苍颈蝉尘 and continued for a longer period until it ended abruptly uninfluenced by 痴补箩谤补测腻苍颈蝉尘. Nelako峁囜笉apalli, Gummadidurru and Sa峁卥aram began with the 惭补丑腻测腻苍补 phase and later passed on to the 痴补箩谤补测腻苍补 phase. 顿丑腻苍测补办补峁璦办补 and S膩lihu峁囜笉am witnessed three phases of Buddhism.
The activities of the 惭补丑腻蝉补峁単丑颈办腻s and 狈腻驳腻谤箩耻苍补鈥檚 philosophical contribution during the reign of 艢r墨 Yajna S膩takar峁噄 led 础苍诲丑谤补诲别艣补 to change to the 惭补丑腻测腻苍颈蝉迟 phase. This led to the great emphasis on iconic worship of Buddha rather than symbolic worship. In the 惭补丑腻测腻苍补 doctrine, the historical Buddha represents the 苍颈谤尘腻苍补办腻测腻. He is an embodiment of compassion who always help others to attain their goal[15]. Further, there was infiltration of the 痴补箩谤补测腻苍补 faith in the Andhra country. This led to the emphasis on the female element and large scale practice of 迟腻苍迟谤颈肠 Buddhism.
These doctrinal changes in the Andhra country affected the content of art and architecture. Thus during the 1st century CE the aniconic tradition gave place to the iconic tradition. The excavation by R. Subrahmanyam in and around 础尘补谤腻惫补迟墨 in 1958-60 unearthed a bronze icon belonging to the 痴补箩谤补测腻苍补 phase, besides other antiquities. Further excavations by I.K. Sarma (1973-74) in 础尘补谤腻惫补迟墨 unearthed the cultural sequence and the chronology of the 惭补丑腻肠补颈迟测补 of 础尘补谤腻惫补迟墨. According to him Period V spanning from 6th century C.E-11th century C.E is represented by the occurrence of 痴补箩谤补测腻苍补 phase. The occurrence of stone and bronze icons of Maitreya(Pl 13b), 惭补苍箩耻艣谤墨, 尝辞办别艣惫补谤补, 痴补箩谤补辫腻峁噄, Tara etc of 痴补箩谤补测腻苍补 faith from 础尘补谤腻惫补迟墨 clearly signify the gradual transformation of 惭补丑腻测腻苍补 Buddhism to tantric 痴补箩谤补测腻苍补 faith[16].
The physical relics of the Master and his disciple is considered as the main focus for Buddhist devotion and the most important symbol of early Buddhism became the 蝉迟奴辫补 or the relic mound. It acted as the symbol of Buddha鈥檚 笔补谤颈苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺. According to 惭补丑腻辫补谤颈苍颈产产腻峁嘺 Sutta when Buddha was asked what was to be done with the remains after his death he said that his body should be placed within two iron vessels and it should be cremated. The relics should be placed in a 蝉迟奴辫补 where four roads meet. The relics of his disciple should be treated likewise. After Buddha鈥檚 cremation his relics (艢腻谤墨谤补蝉) were divided into eight portions and each was placed in a 蝉迟奴辫补. Later 础艣辞办补 opened up the original 蝉迟奴辫补s and distributed the relics in many 蝉迟奴辫补s throughout India[17]. However, it should be pointed out that even during the pre-Buddhist times, there was the practice of raising mounds over the remains of great personalities. Thus, earlier it was memorial but later it became an article of veneration and worship for the Buddhists.
The Buddhist 蝉迟奴辫补s can be broadly divided into four categories- 艢腻谤墨谤补办补 (mounds enshrining the bodily remains of great persons), 笔腻谤颈产丑辞驳颈办补 (mounds containing objects used by the Master or his disciple), 鲍诲诲别艣颈办补 (mounds commemorative of incidents in the Buddha鈥檚 life, previous births or spots visited by him) and votive (erected by pilgrims on sacred sites). The 艢腻谤墨谤补办补 蝉迟奴辫补s are commonly found in Andhra. Mah膩蝉迟奴辫补 顿丑腻苍测补办补峁璦办补 also belonged to the 艢腻谤墨谤补办补 type. 惭补苍箩耻艣谤墨 M奴lakalpa refers to the enshrinement of the corporeal relics of Buddha in the Caitya (艢r墨 顿丑腻苍测补办补峁璦办补 Chaityaka Caitya Jinadh膩tudharebhuvi)[18]. Along with 础尘补谤腻惫补迟墨, Maha蝉迟奴辫补 of Bha峁弓iprolu, 骋丑补峁囜弓补艣腻濒腻 and 狈腻驳腻谤箩耻苍补办辞峁囜笉补 have yielded relics of the Master or his disciple. In addition to it the tradition points to the incident of Buddha鈥檚 visit to 顿丑腻苍测补办补峁璦办补. Therefore it can be suggested that the mound also falls to the category of the 鲍诲诲别艣颈办补 蝉迟奴辫补. Votive 蝉迟奴辫补s were also found at 础尘补谤腻惫补迟墨[19].
The symbolism associated with the component parts of the 蝉迟奴辫补 is immense. The dome (础峁囜笉补) of the 蝉迟奴辫补 is called kumbha as it enshrines in its centre the sacred relics. (叠墨箩补蝉蝉 eed). The casing of the 蝉迟奴辫补 dome acts as the outermost container of the relics and symbolically represents the P奴r峁嘺 kumbha or vase of plenty which is one of the eight sacred symbols (础峁ａ弓补尘补峁単补濒蝉) of Buddhism. The dome is surmounted by the parasol. The parasol stands as the emblem of royalty and it signifies the spiritual supremacy of Buddha. The use of parasol might have been derived from the custom of ancient rulers sitting under the shade of the sacred tree while administering justice. Thus the parasol on the 蝉迟奴辫补 denotes sovereignty and the sacred tree. The parasol is surrounded by the 丑补谤尘颈办腻. The word 丑补谤尘颈办腻 might have been derived from harmya which means cooler shade giving place. Around the 蝉迟奴辫补 upto the 惫别诲颈办腻 is the circumambulatory (辫谤补诲补办蝉颈峁嚹乸补迟丑补) to go round the sacred structure. 笔谤补诲补办蝉颈峁嚹乸补迟丑补 around the 蝉迟奴辫补 is one of the main religious practices of the Buddhists[20]. Below the dome is the medhi. The ground plan exhibits the pattern of a wheel with radiating spokes from the central hub. This is a unique construction pattern in Andhra symbolizing universal spiritual sovereignty. The cardinal points of the upper 辫谤补诲补办蝉颈峁嚹乸补迟丑补 were marked by five free standing 腻测补办补 pillars. They were probably erected before the middle of 2nd century C.E[21]. These pillars are a special feature in the Andhra Buddhist architecture and are very ornamental[22].
The five 腻测补办补 pillars may represent five Buddhas of the present kalpa or the five 顿丑测腻苍颈 Buddhas or the five elements[23]. J Fergusson and J. Burgess saw the pillars as 鈥淲orshipful columns鈥�. In an article on the architecture of 础尘补谤腻惫补迟墨, G. Jouveau Dubreuil thought that five pillars signify five Buddhas. On the basis of the representation on the pillar A.H longhurst suggested that the five pillars were created to symbolize the five episodes of the life of Buddha (Birth, Great Departure, Enlightenment, First Sermon and 笔补谤颈苍颈谤惫腻峁嘺)[24]. Mireille Benisti opined that the pillar represent Mahapurusha, that is, Buddha himself[25]. Thus the five Kalpa Buddhas are represented by five pillars at four directions of Andhra 蝉迟奴辫补. The five Buddhas of the world (Krakucchanda, Kanakamuni, Kasyapa, Sakyamuni and Maityreya) manifested in the form of five pillars was integrated in the Andhra architecture at four cardinal points[26]. Thus the 蝉迟奴辫补 is not only the symbol of Parinirvana, but represents the Master himself. In some reliefs from 础尘补谤腻惫补迟墨 a series of Buddhas are shown alternating with 蝉迟奴辫补s.
The sculptures of 础尘补谤腻惫补迟墨 tell us that the sculptors were familiar with the cycles of Buddhist myths and legends. Thus the 蝉迟奴辫补s of 础尘补谤腻惫补迟墨 were richly decorated with scenes illustrating the 闯腻迟补办补 stories, the 础惫补诲腻苍补蝉 and the scenes from Buddha鈥檚 life stories. Though both the 闯腻迟补办补s and 础惫补诲腻苍补蝉, an important section of Buddhist literature, are used for inculcating moral precepts of Buddha, there lies some differences. In 闯腻迟补办补s Bodhisattva is the principle person, while in the 础惫补诲腻苍补, this is not so in many cases. While 闯腻迟补办补s always describe Buddha鈥檚 previous existence, 础惫补诲腻苍补蝉 deal not only with Buddha but also saints, 础谤补丑腻迟蝉 and many other beings. The Buddhist doctrine of Karma is well illustrated in 闯腻迟补办补, but in 础惫补诲腻苍补蝉 bhakti predominates. 闯腻迟补办补 may be called a 础惫补诲腻苍补, but not vice-versa. Only when the hero of the past is Bodhisattva, this kind of 础惫补诲腻苍补 can be called a 闯腻迟补办补[27]. The 闯腻迟补办补 are legends of Buddhas previous births which he himself and his disciples narrated at various occasions to his followers in support of Buddhist doctrine. In 闯腻迟补办补 stories good actions were highlighted stressing better position in the next birth and bad actions leading to lower positions in the following birth. Though the 闯腻迟补办补 stories were transmitted orally and later codified in various Buddhist texts, visual narratives of the 闯腻迟补办补 first appeared. Since it was recognized as the part and parcel of Buddhist literature it was depicted in various Buddhist art centres and 础尘补谤腻惫补迟墨 was no exception to this rule[28]. The 闯腻迟补办补s probably served as instruments for the monks who were spiritual guides in explaining the meaning and morals of the 闯腻迟补办补s to the people who paid homage to the Buddhist relics enshrined in the 蝉迟奴辫补s.
Footnotes and references:
[2]:
[3]:
[4]:
Subrahmanyam B, 2005, 闯腻迟补办补s in South Indian Art, Delhi, p 6.
[5]:
Subrahmaniam K.S , 1981, Buddhist remains in South India Early Andhra History of Andhra. 225 AD to 610 AD, New Delhi, p 27
[6]:
Dutt Sukumar, Reprinted 1988, Buddhist monks and monasteries of India, The history and their contribution to Indian Culture, London, p 135.
[8]:
[9]:
Das D. Jithendra, Op.cit, p 13
[10]:
Sarkar H, 1966, Studies in Early Buddhist Architecture in India, New Delhi, p 101.
[11]:
Ibid, p 101.
[12]:
Das D. Jithendra, Op.cit, p 14.
[13]:
Watters Thomas (tr), reprinted 1905, On Yuan Chwang鈥檚 Travels in India, AD 629-645, Vol-II, edited by Rhys Davids T.W and Bushell S.W, London, pp 214-218
[14]:
Das. D. Jithendra, Op.cit, p 14.
[15]:
Prasad B. Rajendra, 1980, Art of South India, Andhra Pradesh, Delhi, p 9.
[16]:
Subrahmanyam B, Op.cit, p10.
[17]:
Harvey Peter, 1991, 鈥榁enerated object and symbols of early Buddhism鈥� in Werner Karel (ed), Symbols in Art and Religion, The Indian and the Comparative Perspective, Delhi, p 82.
[18]:
Sivaramamurti C, Op.Cit, p 7
[19]:
Sivaramamurti C, Op.Cit, p 21
[20]:
Das D. Jithendra, Op.cit, p 27.
[21]:
Benisti Mireille, 2003, Stylistics of Buddhist Art in India, Vol 1, New Delhi, p 127.
[22]:
Ramachandran A, Op.cit, pp 50-51
[23]:
Mireille Benisti, Op.cit, p 129.
[24]:
Ibid, p 131
[25]:
Ibid, p 135
[26]:
Ibid, p 142
[27]:
Chattopadhyay Jayanti, 1994, Bodhisattva 础惫补诲腻苍补 Kalpalat膩, Calcutta, pp 56-57.