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Significance of Yama

Yama, in Hinduism, represents the god of death and moral authority over the afterlife, often depicted as overseeing souls' destinies based on their actions. In Jainism, it refers to the god of death and ethical practices promoting virtues like non-violence and self-restraint. Yama is also acknowledged in yoga as a set of moral disciplines essential for spiritual practice, highlighting ethical conduct. Across various traditions, Yama embodies death's significance, justice, and the principles guiding ethical behavior and spiritual discipline.1
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Synonyms: Mountain, Peak, Summit, Ridge, Hill, Elevation, Range, Pluto

In Dutch: Yama; In German: Yama; In Finnish: Yama; In Spanish: Yama; In Swedish: Yama; In Malay: Yama; In French: Yama

The below excerpts are indicatory and do represent direct quotations or translations. It is your responsibility to fact check each reference.

Buddhist concept of 'Yama'

Buddhism Books

Yama in Buddhism represents a multifaceted concept, including a divine class of gods, the god of Death who judges souls, a source of happiness, a realm alleviating suffering, and an embodiment of universal compassion extending to all beings.

Significance in Mahayana (major branch of Buddhism):
Mahayana Books

From: Maha Prajnaparamita Sastra

(1) A class of gods that also falls below the Tushita gods.[1] (2) The happy gods, described as 'subhaga' or bringing happiness.[2]

From: The gods of northern Buddhism

(1) The god of Death, known as Dharmaraja, who judges the dead in his realm, accompanied by his sister Yami.[3]

Mahayana is a major branch of Buddhism focusing on the path of a Bodhisattva (spiritual aspirants/ enlightened beings). Extant literature is vast and primarely composed in the Sanskrit language. There are many sutras of which some of the earliest are the various Prajnaparamita sutras.

Significance in Theravada (major branch of Buddhism):
Theravada Books

From: A Manual of Abhidhamma

(1) Denotes a heavenly realm famed for its ability to alleviate suffering.[4]

From: Patipada (path of practice)

(1) Yama is included in all beings, and metta encompasses everyone, including those who might be considered enemies, all people, the Devatas, Indra, Brahma, the Yakkhas and Demons.[5]

Theravada is a major branch of Buddhism having the the Pali canon (tipitaka) as their canonical literature, which includes the vinaya-pitaka (monastic rules), the sutta-pitaka (Buddhist sermons) and the abhidhamma-pitaka (philosophy and psychology).

Hindu concept of 'Yama'

Hinduism Books

Yama in Hinduism symbolizes the deity of death, embodying self-control and ethical principles essential for yoga practice, while also acting as the guardian of the afterlife, judging souls based on their deeds.

Significance in Purana and Itihasa (epic history):
Purana Books

From: Mahabharata (English)

(1) The god of death in Hindu mythology, invoked in understanding the fate of warriors in battle.[6] (2) The Hindu god of death, representing the ultimate fate awaiting the deceased and warriors in battle.[7] (3) The judge of the dead, who oversees the realm of the deceased and provides Naciketa with knowledge about the rewards of virtue and the significance of making gifts.[8] (4) The god of death in Hindu mythology, referenced by Bhima in a threatening manner towards Hanuman.[9]

From: Devi Bhagavata Purana

(1) The deity associated with death and the afterlife, responsible for overseeing the souls of the departed.[10] (2) The king of the underworld who punishes sinners; often referenced in conjunction with various hells, including Kumbhipaka.[11] (3) The first limb of Yoga which includes ethical disciplines such as non-injury, truthfulness, non-stealing, continence, mercy, uprightness, and cleanliness.[12] (4) The God of Death, residing in the southern part of Manidvipa, symbolizing judgment and moral order.[13]

From: Laghu-yoga-vasistha

(1) The personification of death, responsible for overseeing the process of death and the karmic consequences leading to rebirth.[14] (2) The deity of death who oversees the transition of souls and acts as the judge of a person's actions.[15] (3) The God of death who advises Kala on how to overpower Brahman.[16] (4) The god of death and the one who administers the laws of the universe.[17]

From: Garuda Purana

(1) Five principles of restraint, including abstaining from harming, truthfulness, and Brahmacharya.[18] (2) The deity associated with death and the cycle of life, listed for adoration.[19] (3) The two Yama deities mentioned in the context of worship.[20] (4) The God of Death, related to Vijaya's marriage and the nether world.[21]

From: Ramayana of Valmiki (Griffith)

(1) A figure to whom Kumbhakarna was compared when he was instructed to go to the field, implying a fearsome presence in battle and on the field.[22] (2) Yama is the one who is calling Bali, who mentions that he must go to his gloomy hall to sojourn there and leave his life.[23] (3) This person was conquered by Kumbhakarna in a fight, indicating the giant's immense power and ability to overcome even powerful figures.[24]

From: Yoga Vasistha [English], Volume 1-4

(1) The first stage of external practices in Yoga, involving restraint of passions and moral rules.[25]

From: Markandeya Purana

(1) Another child of Sanjna, known as the 'imprinter' of mankind, who was born as a result of a curse from Sanjna.[26]

From: Gautami Mahatmya

(1) The powerful ruler of the southern quarter and the god of death, who was later revived by Shiva with support from the Devas.[27]

The Purana refers to Sanskrit literature preserving ancient India鈥檚 vast cultural history, including historical legends, religious ceremonies, various arts and sciences. The eighteen mahapuranas total over 400,000 shlokas (metrical couplets) and date to at least several centuries BCE.

Significance in Vedanta (school of philosophy):
Vedanta Books

From: Thirty minor Upanishads

(1) The first of the eight limbs of yoga, outlining ethical guidelines that include non-injury, truth, compassion, and purity.[28] (2) Practices including controlling cold, heat, hunger, sleep, maintaining patience and restraining the organs from sensual objects.[29] (3) Forbearance or moral restraints necessary for the practice of yoga.[30] (4) The practice of moral disciplines or restraints, emphasizing the control of senses and actions.[31]

From: Kathopanishad (Madhva commentary)

(1) The ruler of departed spirits, who interacts with Naciketas and teaches him about the afterlife and the nature of sacrifice.[32] (2) The god of death, who serves as a mediator between life, death, and the attainment of liberation.[33]

From: Brahma Sutras (Shankaracharya)

(1) This is the name of the individual who is recognized as the chief ruler within the seven hells, and is central to the text's information.[34] (2) The deity associated with death and the afterlife in Hindu mythology, known for administering punishment to the souls of evil doers.[35]

From: Taittiriya Upanishad

(1) The deity associated with death and moral law in Hinduism, often referenced in the context of karmic punishment.[36]

From: Vivekachudamani

(1) The ethical guidelines in yoga consisting of non-killing, truthfulness, and other principles that establish a moral foundation for practitioners.[37]

From: Brahma Sutras (Ramanuja)

(1) Yama is a figure associated with the command regulating the journey of souls, indicating authority over the afterlife.[38]

From: Brihadaranyaka Upanishad

(1) The controller of the universe; invoked as a deity who governs the forces of control and regulation.[39]

From: Brahma Sutras (Shankara Bhashya)

(1) The god of death and the guardian of the afterlife in Hindu mythology, who provides answers to Nachiketas.[40]

Vedanta refers to a school of orthodox Hindu philosophy (astika), drawing its subject-matter from the Upanishads. There are a number of sub-schools of Vedanta, however all of them expound on the basic teaching of the ultimate reality (brahman) and liberation (moksha) of the individual soul (atman).

Significance in Dharmashastra (religious law):
Dharmashastra Books

From: Manusmriti with the Commentary of Medhatithi

(1) A reference to a text that warns against accepting gifts from a king, suggesting it leads to loss of noble status.[41] (2) A figure or concept in Hinduism associated with moral conduct and the consequences of one's actions.[42] (3) A figure associated with inflicting torments and representing death in certain philosophical contexts.[43] (4) A reference to a source that discusses the removal of sins through the observation of twilight prayers and breath-control.[44] (5) The god of death and the underworld, responsible for regulating the passage of souls.[45]

From: Bharadvaja-srauta-sutra

(1) In this context, Yama is invoked as part of a ritual of cursing, associated with death and the afterlife.[46] (2) A deity associated with death and the concept of cosmic order, referenced in the context of repaying debts.[47] (3) A deity associated with the afterlife, invoked in one of the three formulas during the ritual.[48]

From: Sankhayana-grihya-sutra

(1) The god of death and dharma associated with the lunar mansion Bharanis.[49]

Dharmashastra contains the instructions (shastra) regarding religious conduct of livelihood (dharma), ceremonies, jurisprudence (study of law) and more. It is categorized as smriti, an important and authoritative selection of books dealing with the Hindu lifestyle.

Significance in Vaishnavism (Vaishava dharma):
Vaishnavism Books

From: Garga Samhita (English)

(1) The deity associated with death and the afterlife, present at the yajna.[50] (2) The deity referred to in the text, representing death and the moral authority of the afterlife.[51] (3) The Hindu god of death and dharma, often depicted in connection with the afterlife and justice.[52] (4) The deity associated with the afterlife and the realm of the dead in Hindu belief.[53] (5) He is Yama (kanka), referring to a deity associated with death and the afterlife in Hindu mythology.[54]

From: Bhajana-Rahasya

(1) one of the eight periods of the day.[55]

From: Bhakti-rasamrta-sindhu

(1) Moral restraints that are part of spiritual discipline, particularly in controlling one's actions and thoughts.[56]

From: Chaitanya Bhagavata

(1) Yama is a figure representing death in Hindu mythology, often associated with the god of death and the ruler of the afterlife.[57]

Vaishnava or vaishnavism (vaishnavism) represents a tradition of Hinduism worshipping Vishnu as the supreme Lord. Similar to the Shaktism and Shaivism traditions, Vaishnavism also developed as an individual movement, famous for its exposition of the dashavatara (鈥榯en avatars of Vishnu鈥�).

Significance in Yoga (school of philosophy):
Yoga Books

From: Yoga-sutras (with Vyasa and Vachaspati Mishra)

(1) One of the eight limbs of Yoga, comprising ethical precepts that include non-violence and truthfulness.[58]

From: Yoga-sutras (with Bhoja鈥檚 Rajamartanda)

(1) Yama refers to the restraints that include the practices of non-slaughter, truthfulness, non-theft, continence, and non-avarice as essential accessories to the practice of Yoga.[59]

Yoga is originally considered a branch of Hindu philosophy (astika), but both ancient and modern Yoga combine the physical, mental and spiritual. Yoga teaches various physical techniques also known as asanas (postures), used for various purposes (eg., meditation, contemplation, relaxation).

Significance in Hinduism (general):

From: Satapatha-brahmana

(1) The god associated with control and the sun, whom the Mahavira is sprinkled for.[60] (2) A deity associated with death and the afterlife, having power over the abode of the deceased.[61]

Significance in Shaktism (Shakta philosophy):
Shaktism Books

From: Shakti and Shakta

(1) The first limb of Ashtangayoga focused on self-control through ethics and moral conduct.[62]

Shakta or Shaktism (shaktism) represents a tradition of Hinduism where the Goddess (Devi) is revered and worshipped. Shakta literature includes a range of scriptures, including various Agamas and Tantras, although its roots may be traced back to the Vedas.

Significance in Ayurveda (science of life):
Ayurveda Books

From: History of Indian Medicine (and Ayurveda)

(1) The Hindu god of death who is associated with the transition of souls after death.[63]

Ayurveda is a branch of Indian science dealing with medicine, herbalism, taxology, anatomy, surgery, alchemy and related topics. Traditional practice of Ayurveda in ancient India dates back to at least the first millenium BC. Literature is commonly written in Sanskrit using various poetic metres.

Significance in Jyotisha (astronomy and astrology):
Jyotisha Books

From: Brihat Samhita

(1) Divisions of time related to the Sun鈥檚 daily motion, each associated with different omens and outcomes.[64]

Jyotisha (啶溹啶啶むた啶�, jyotisha or jyotish) refers to 鈥榓stronomy鈥� or 鈥淰edic astrology鈥� and represents the fifth of the six Vedangas (additional sciences to be studied along with the Vedas). Jyotisha concerns itself with the study and prediction of the movements of celestial bodies, in order to calculate the auspicious time for rituals and ceremonies.

Significance in Pancaratra (worship of N膩r膩ya峁嘺):
Pancaratra Books

From: Parama Samhita (English translation)

(1) Self-control that is exercised through discipline, which is necessary for proper practice of Yoga.[65]

Pancaratra represents a tradition of Hinduism where Narayana is revered and worshipped. Closeley related to Vaishnavism, the Pancaratra literature includes various Agamas and tantras incorporating many Vaishnava philosophies.

Significance in Kavya (poetry):
Kavya Books

From: Kathasaritsagara (the Ocean of Story)

(1) The Hindu god of death, referenced in a fictional context during a conversation between a Yaksha and his wife.[66]

Kavya refers to Sanskrit poetry, a popular ancient Indian tradition of literature. There have been many Sanskrit poets over the ages, hailing from ancient India and beyond. This topic includes mahakavya, or 鈥榚pic poetry鈥� and natya, or 鈥榙ramatic poetry鈥�.

Jain concept of 'Yama'

Jainism Books

In Jainism, Yama can be interpreted as the god of death, the king of hell administering justice, and a symbol of moral codes promoting non-violence and self-restraint for those with mitra drishti.

Significance in Jainism (general):

From: Trishashti Shalaka Purusha Caritra

(1) The king of hell, who captures Ravana鈥檚 vassals, representing the implementation of justice and retribution within the narrative.[67] (2) A reference to the god of death, establishing the gravity of the situation.[68]

Jainism is an Indian religion of Dharma whose doctrine revolves around harmlessness (ahimsa) towards every living being. The two major branches (Digambara and Svetambara) of Jainism stimulate self-control (or, shramana, 鈥榮elf-reliance鈥�) and spiritual development through a path of peace for the soul to progess to the ultimate goal.

The concept of Yama in local and regional sources

History Books

Yama encompasses various meanings, including a tragic event involving a princess, ethical principles in Raja Yoga, a time division, and essential observances in Yoga practice aimed at enhancing concentration and discipline.

Significance in India history and geography:

From: The Complete Works of Swami Vivekananda

(1) Yama is the name of the God of Death who judges the dead and took the soul of Satyavan.[69] (2) Yama is the initial step in Raja-Yoga, encompassing ethical restraints such as non-injury, truthfulness, non-covetousness, chastity, and non-attachment.[70] (3) This constitutes the initial step of Raja-Yoga and involves moral training, specifically focusing on non-killing, truthfulness, non-stealing, continence, and non-receiving of gifts.[71] (4) This refers to the external parts of the three practices: Dharana, Dhyana, and Samadhi, and is practiced before them.[72]

From: History of Science in South Asia

(1) Yama refers to the general observances, and they are auxiliaries of Yoga that one should practice while abiding by, and they are mentioned in the context of the practice of concentration, which is described in the text.[73] (2) In Bhaskara's commentary, the yama is a unit of time that is part of a time division, where one ahoratra (day and night) is equal to 4 yamas.[74]

From: Triveni Journal

(1) Yamas are ethical precepts in Raja Yoga related to truthfulness, non-stealing, continence, and non-receiving of gifts.[75]

Significance in South Asia:
South Asia Books

From: Village Folk-tales of Ceylon (Sri Lanka), vol. 1-3

(1) The act performed by the Princess after consuming poisoned cakes sent by the Prince, leading to her death.[76]