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1 Meaning of Education:

Education signifies man鈥檚 supreme position in society.^[1] The word education is derived from the Latin word 鈥淓ducare鈥� and Educare means to bring up, to lead out and to develop etc. In this way the word education means to develop the inborn qualities of a child to the full.^[2] According to Oxford English Dictionary education means the theory and practice of teaching or training in a particular subject.^[3] Hence, education is an essential element in human life. While a man is being educated, his regard for morality ought to be developed, his feeling of good will towards human beings ought to be strengthened and his control over his mind ought to be perfected, so that he can follow the beacon of light of his conscience.^[4] In other words, education ought to develop man鈥檚 ideal nature by giving him a sure moral feeling and by enabling him to control his original animal nature.The tree of education ought to flower in wisdom as well as in virtue, in knowledge as well as in manners.^[5]

In the 惭腻濒补迟墨尘腻诲丑补惫补 of 叠丑补惫补产丑奴迟颈, education system of 8^th century A.D. is very well reflected. At the very outset of the 惭腻濒补迟墨尘腻诲丑补惫补, 叠丑补惫补产丑奴迟颈 has mentioned that his ancestors were teachers of Vedic school. Here he has used the term 肠补谤补峁嘺驳耻谤补惫补岣�.^[6] According to the Jagaddhara commentary of 惭腻濒补迟墨尘腻诲丑补惫补 the term 肠补谤补峁嘺 denotes group. He has defined 肠补谤补峁嘺 as such individuals who study particular branch of Vedas and form a group. Such a group of students is called 肠补谤补峁嘺.^[7] 叠丑补惫补产丑奴迟颈 has used the term 驳耻谤补惫补岣� which Jagaddhara means teacher of Veda in a 肠补谤补峁嘺 or group.^[8] Thus it becomes clear that 叠丑补惫补产丑奴迟颈鈥檚 ancestors were teachers of 罢补颈迟迟颈谤墨测补 branch where Br膩ma峁嘺s were mainly authorised for Vedic study and spiritual knowledge.

As 艣谤辞迟谤颈测腻s or Vedic scholars, 叠丑补惫补产丑奴迟颈鈥檚 ancestors were perpetually devoted themselves to manifold holy studies for ascertaining truth. They acquired wealth for the performance of sacrificial rites and they performed construction of works of public utility. They were anxious to lead a conjugal life for progeny and they cared for life only for the performance of religious austerities.^[9] According to jagaddhara commentary, 艣谤辞迟谤颈测腻 is he who learns by heart the Candas or Vedas.^[10] Further, 叠丑补惫补产丑奴迟颈 has mentioned that his grandfather named 叠丑补峁�峁�补驳辞辫腻濒补 had attained eminence by his learning and his father 狈墨濒补办补峁囜弓丑补 had acquired fame by his learning. ^[11] Thus, it shows that 叠丑补惫补产丑奴迟颈鈥檚 ancestors were well educated.

2 Institution of Learning:

In the 惭腻濒补迟墨尘腻诲丑补惫补, 叠丑补惫补产丑奴迟颈 has given the reference of institution of learning. In the 1^st act of the 惭腻濒补迟墨尘腻诲丑补惫补, it has been found that 惭腻诲丑补惫补 was sent by his father 顿别惫补谤腻迟补 from 碍耻峁囜笉颈苍补辫耻谤补 to the city of 笔补诲尘腻惫补迟墨 in order to study 峋筺惫颈办峁�i办墨.^[12] There he had studied 膧苍惫墨办峁�i办墨 in the 笔补诲尘腻惫补迟墨 along with his childhood friend Makaranda.¹⁵⁰ All these descriptions apparently indicate that there was famous learning institution in the city 笔补诲尘腻惫补迟墨 during 叠丑补惫补产丑奴迟颈鈥檚 time where students gathered from distant places.As 笔补诲尘腻惫补迟墨 provided higher education, students went there for higher education only.

3 Co-education:

In this 笔谤补办补谤补峁嘺, 叠丑补惫补产丑奴迟颈 throws very interesting light on co-education. In the 1^st act of the 惭腻濒补迟墨尘腻诲丑补惫补, it is found that 碍腻尘补苍诲补办墨 had secured education in the city of 笔补诲尘腻惫补迟墨 along with 叠丑奴谤颈惫补蝉耻, 顿别惫补谤腻迟补 and 厂补耻诲腻尘颈苍墨 where students had come from different regions^[13] where boys and girls were educated together which signifies the prevailing co鈥揺ducation system during the period of 8^th century A.D.

4 Subjects of Study:

In the 惭腻濒补迟墨尘腻诲丑补惫补, 叠丑补惫补产丑奴迟颈 has referred various subjects of study of his time. During the period of 8^th century A.D. the four Vedas, 鲍辫补苍颈峁�a诲蝉, 峋筺惫墨办峁�i办墨 and the 狈测腻测补 systems of philosophy were the principal subjects. Fine arts like painting, music, dancing etc. were also taught.

The four Vedas, 鲍辫补苍颈峁�a诲蝉:

The Vedas are said to be the foundation of all knowledge

.According to S膩ya峁嚹乧膩rya, Veda constitutes statements of divine origin:

补辫补耻谤耻峁�e测补尘 惫腻办测补峁� 惫别诲补岣�.^[14]

According to him Vedic literature includes the Vedic 厂补峁僪颈迟腻蝉, 叠谤腻丑尘补峁嘺蝉, 膧谤补峁噛补办补蝉 and 鲍辫补苍颈峁�a诲蝉.

There are four 厂补峁僪颈迟腻蝉 viz.,

1. 峁欢惫别诲补,
2. Yajurveda,
3. 厂腻尘补惫别诲补 and
4. Atharvaveda.

In the very beginning of this 笔谤补办补谤补峁嘺, reference to the study of the Vedas by 叠丑补惫补产丑奴迟颈 is found.^[15]

The 鲍辫补苍颈峁�a诲蝉:

The 鲍辫补苍颈峁�a诲蝉 form the closing part of the Veda and are called 痴别诲腻苍迟补.They are known as 辫补谤腻-惫颈诲测腻. They were considered to be above all the knowledge. The 鲍辫补苍颈峁�a诲蝉 are the books that deal with the spiritual knowledge and absolute.These enable a man to realise oneness with Brahman. The knowledge of 鲍辫补苍颈峁�a诲蝉 also enables the nearness or oneness with absolute God and destroys the illusion and its effect. Literally, 鲍辫补苍颈峁�a诲 means sitting down near. In the beginning of the 惭腻濒补迟墨尘腻诲丑补惫补, 叠丑补惫补产丑奴迟颈 himself has recognised that he has mastered the 鲍辫补苍颈峁�a诲蝉.^[16]

峋筺惫墨办峁�i办墨 (subjective or metaphysical speculation):

The name of 峋筺惫墨办峁�i办墨 stands for the sciences derived from subjective or metaphysical speculation involving keen introspection. 

Three such different subjects or systems of thought and philosophy are known as 峋筺惫墨办峁�i办墨 viz.,

1. 厂腻峁僰丑测补,
2. Yoga and
3. 尝辞办腻测补迟补. ^[17]

It has been known that 惭腻诲丑补惫补 had gone to the city 笔补诲尘腻惫补迟墨 for studying 峋筺惫墨办峁�i办墨.^[18] Again in another place it is found that 惭腻诲丑补惫补 had studied 峋筺惫墨办峁�i办墨 along with Makaranda.^[19] The 厂腻峁僰丑测补 system is one of the six orthodox Indian systems. Kapila is the founder of this system. Hence this system is known as 碍腻辫颈濒补 诲补谤艣补苍补. The word 厂腻峁僰丑测补 is derived from the word 厂补峁僰丑测腻 which means number. Etymologically the word is derived from the root 办丑测腻 preceeded by the suffix sam. The meaning of the root 办丑测腻 is knowledge. In the sense of number, it deals with twenty-five categories. Hence, the 厂腻峁僰丑测补 means the philosophy of right knowledge as also the philosophy of numbers.^[20] The 厂腻峁僰丑测补 believes in the authority of the Vedas. So, it is orthodox. It establishes that there is no God. It accepts two ultimate realities, 辫耻谤耻峁�a and 辫谤补办峁泃颈 and further maintains the plurality of the 辫耻谤耻峁�a and is silent on God.

The three 驳耻峁嘺蝉 are:

1. Sattva,
2. Rajas and
3. Tamas.

The 驳耻峁嘺蝉 are not perceived but are inferred from their effects of the worldly objects.^[21] The Sattva 驳耻峁嘺 is that element of 辫谤补办峁泃颈 which is of the nature of pleasure. It is light (laghu) and bright or illuminating (辫谤补办腻艣补办补). The second 驳耻峁嘺 is Rajas. It produces pain and sorrow. The third 驳耻峁嘺 Tamas is that which resists activity and produces the state of apathy or indifference. Tamas means darkness. It is heavy and enveloping (惫补谤补峁嘺办补). The function of these three 驳耻峁嘺蝉 are manifestation (辫谤补办腻艣补) activity (辫谤补惫峁泃迟颈) and restraint (苍颈测腻尘补测补) respectively.

The Yoga philosophy, the chief aim of which is to teach the means by which the individual soul can be united with the supreme spirit, and many elaborate rules are given for the proper practice of Yoga or abstract meditation.^[22] In the 惭腻濒补迟墨尘腻诲丑补惫补, 叠丑补惫补产丑奴迟颈 has given numerous reference of practising Yoga. In the 9^th act 厂补耻诲腻尘颈苍墨 has given to know that she had attained the miraculous power of transport by her practice of Yoga.^[23] 笔补迟补帽箩补濒颈 in his 驰辞驳补蝉奴迟谤补, says when the power of concentration of the mind has reached a very high degree of perfection, a yogi can move through space by concentrating his mind on such light objects as cotton.^[24] It can be conceded that people had made deep practice of Yoga during 8^th century A.D.

The 尝辞办腻测补迟补 诲补谤艣补苍补 or 颁腻谤惫腻办补 诲补谤艣补苍补 is a system of philosophy. It is also termed as Materialism. It is said that the term 颁腻谤惫腻办补 was originally the name of the disciple to whom the doctrine was first communicated by its founder.Moreover the word is understood as the equivalent of 鈥渟weet-tongued鈥� 肠腻谤耻 惫腻办 which aptly describes the advocates of a doctrine characterised by so much of superficial attractiveness.The most important doctrine of this system is that perception is the only means of valid knowledge but that gives rise only to a piecemeal knowledge of things without connecting them by means of any necessary relation.The 颁腻谤惫腻办补 discards other 辫谤补尘腻峁嘺蝉 including inference. The 颁腻谤惫腻办补 regards feeling as directly characterizing the physical body and describes it in terms of bodily expression^[25] . During 叠丑补惫补产丑奴迟颈's time systems of philosophy such as 尝辞办腻测补迟补 诲补谤艣补苍补 or Materialism was a subject of study.

狈测腻测补 (logic鈥攖he process of reasoning):

The 狈测腻测补 is also the system of Indian philosophy. Gautama was the propunder of this philosophy. This philosophy deals with logic, the process of reasoning. Sixteen major topics were discussed in this system, the most important of which is 辫谤补尘腻峁嘺, the source of valid knowledge. 叠丑补惫补产丑奴迟颈 was conversant with the 狈测腻测补 philosophy is evidenced by the word 辫谤补尘腻峁嘺 in the epithet pada-惫腻办ya-辫谤补尘腻峁嘺j帽a applied to him. Although, reference of 狈测腻测补 system is not found in the 惭腻濒补迟墨尘腻诲丑补惫补, yet in the 4^th act of the 鲍迟迟补谤补谤腻补肠补谤颈迟补, the technical term 苍颈驳谤补丑补-蝉迟丑腻苍补 of the 狈测腻测补 system is alluded to in the words bho, 苍颈驳峁沨颈迟辞蝉颈 of the 产补峁璾 厂补耻诲丑腻迟补办颈.¹⁶⁴

Painting:

The 惭腻濒补迟墨尘腻诲丑补惫补 indicates wide range of learning in paintings of his time. In the 1^stact it is found that when 惭腻濒补迟墨 stationed at the lofty window of the topmost room, having again and again beholding 惭腻诲丑补惫补 her longing grew intensely and at that very moment she had drawn a portrait of 惭腻诲丑补惫补 for her diversion and placed it into the hands of Mand膩rik膩 through Lava峁単ik膩 to give 惭腻诲丑补惫补.^[26] When 惭腻诲丑补惫补 had got the portrait of him drawn by 惭腻濒补迟墨 then Makaranda said to him to portray 惭腻濒补迟墨 by the side of him.^[27] Accordingly, 惭腻诲丑补惫补 told Makaranda to bring the picture board and the painting brushes for him.^[28] Thereafter 惭腻诲丑补惫补 drew a life鈥搇ike portrait of 惭腻濒补迟墨 within a few minutes. Thus, it may be noted here that painting was a subject of study during 8^thcentury A.D.

Music:

叠丑补惫补产丑奴迟颈 has furnished interesting evidence regarding the learning of music of his time. In the 2^nd act there is a reference of music hall which denotes the practising of music.^[29]

Singing:

Again in the 6^th act it is found that during the marriage ceremony of 惭腻濒补迟墨, when she went to worship the city-deity, during her journey to the temple the courtesans had sung loudly sweet auspicious songs. ^[30] It indicates how the art of singing was being taught to the girls during the time of 叠丑补惫补产丑奴迟颈.

Dancing:

In the 惭腻濒补迟墨尘腻诲丑补惫补, 叠丑补惫补产丑奴迟颈 has provided the evidence of learning dance also. In the 2^nd act Lava峁単ik膩 says that 惭腻濒补迟墨 was dancing without music but accompanied by her nature only.^[31] From this it appears that 惭腻濒补迟墨 had acquired the knowledge to perform dance. Further in the 10^th act it has been found that when 惭腻诲丑补惫补 and 惭腻濒补迟墨 became united, at that time 惭腻诲丑补惫补鈥檚 servant Kalaha峁僺aka, 础惫补濒辞办颈迟腻 and Buddharak峁�it膩 are found dancing in various ways.^[32] Thus, it appears that learning of art of dancing was very common during 叠丑补惫补产丑奴迟颈鈥檚 time.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

Sharma,Shashi Prabha., Basic Principles of Education, p.3

[2]:

Ibid.,p.4

[3]:

Vide, Hawker, Sara, Oxford English Dictionary, p.217

[4]:

Altekar,A.S., Education in Ancient India, p.9

[5]:

Ibid.

[6]:

astidak峁�i峁嚹乸athe vidarbhe峁�u 辫补诲尘补辫耻谤补峁� 苍腻尘补 苍补驳补谤补峁� /
tatra kecitaittir墨yi峁嘺岣� /
k膩艣yap膩艣肠补谤补峁嘺驳耻谤补惫补岣� /
惭腻濒补迟墨尘腻诲丑补惫补, I.p.7

[7]:

肠补谤补峁嘺艣abda岣� 艣膩kh膩vi艣e峁Ｄ乨hyayanaparaikat膩pannajanasa峁単av膩c墨 /
Jagaddhara on Ibid., I. p.7

[8]:

tatra samuhe te 驳耻谤补惫补岣� 办谤颈测腻峁� k峁泃v膩 ved膩dhy膩payit膩ra岣� /Ibid.

[9]:

te 艣谤辞迟谤颈测腻statvavini艣cay膩ya 产丑奴谤颈 艣谤耻迟补峁� 艣膩艣vatam膩driyante /
i峁ａ弓膩ya p奴rt膩ya ca karma峁噀arth膩nd膩r膩napaty膩ya tapoartham膩yu岣� //Ibid., I.5

[10]:

艣谤辞迟谤颈测腻艣chandoadhyet膩ra岣�
Jagaddhara on Ibid., I.p.7

[11]:

tad膩mu峁�y膩ya峁嘺sya tatrabhavata岣� sug峁沨墨tan膩mno bha峁�峁璦gop膩lasya 辫补耻迟谤补岣� pavitrak墨rter n墨laka峁囜弓hasy膩tmasa峁僢havo bha峁�峁璦艣r墨ka峁囜弓hapadal膩帽cano bhavabh奴tir苍腻尘补 j膩tukar峁嚹玴utra岣� kavinisargasauh峁沝ena bharate峁�u svak峁泃imevapr膩ya驳耻峁嘺bh奴yas墨masm膩kamarpitav膩n /
Ibid., I.p.8

[12]:

tadid膩n墨峁� vidarbhar膩jamantrin膩 sat膩devar膩tena 尘腻诲丑补惫补峁� putram膩nv墨k 峁�ik墨艣rava峁嚹亂a ku峁囜笉inapur膩dim膩峁� 辫补诲尘腻惫补迟墨峁� prahi峁ａ箛at膩 suvihitam /
Ibid.¹⁵⁰ atra v膩lasuh峁沝膩 makarandena saha 惫颈诲测腻m膩nv墨k峁�ik墨madh墨gacchati /
Ibid., II.p.60

[13]:

ayi ki峁� va vetsi yadekatra no 惫颈诲测腻parigrah膩ya n膩n膩digantav膩sin膩峁� s膩hasaryam膩s墨t /
Ibid., I.p.14

[14]:

Vide, Chaturvedi, S., 峁欢惫别诲补 Bh膩峁�yabh奴mik膩 of S膩ya峁嚹乧膩rya,p.22

[15]:

测补诲惫别诲腻诲丑测补苍补峁�/
惭腻濒补迟墨尘腻诲丑补惫补,I.7

[16]:

迟补迟丑辞辫补苍颈峁�a诲腻峁�/
Ibid.

[17]:

s膩峁僰hya yogo lok膩yata峁� cety膩nv墨k峁�ik墨 /
础谤迟丑补艣补蝉迟谤补,I.I.10

[18]:

devar膩tena 尘腻诲丑补惫补峁� putram膩nv墨k峁�ik墨艣rava峁嚹亂a ku峁囜笉inapur膩dim膩峁� 辫补诲尘腻惫补迟墨峁� prahi峁ａ箛vat膩 suvihitam /
惭腻濒补迟墨尘腻诲丑补惫补, I.p.14

[19]:

atra v膩lasuh峁沝膩 makarandena saha 惫颈诲测腻m膩nv墨k峁�ik墨madhigachati /
Ibid., II.p.60

[20]:

蝉腻峁僰丑测补峁� sa峁儼斐蟛饽錿makatv膩cca kapil膩dibhirucyate /
惭补迟蝉测补辫奴谤腻峁嘺, 3.26

[21]:

pravartate tri驳耻峁嘺ta岣� samuday膩t sa/
厂腻峁僰丑测补 K膩rik膩,16

[22]:

tadv膩rtham膩tranirbh膩sa峁� svar奴pa艣奴nya峁� 蝉补尘腻诲丑颈岣� /
驰辞驳补蝉奴迟谤补., III.2,3

[23]:

gurucary膩tapastantramantrayog膩bhiyogaj膩m /
惭腻濒补迟墨尘腻诲丑补惫补., IX.V.52

[24]:

k膩y膩k膩艣ayo岣� sambandhasa峁儁am膩 llaghutulasam膩patte艣c膩k膩艣agamanam /
驰辞驳补蝉奴迟谤补, III.41

[25]:

Hiriyanna. M, Outlines of Indian Philosophy,p.187¹⁶⁴ 鲍迟迟补谤补谤腻补肠补谤颈迟补, IV

[26]:

tay膩py膩tmano vinodanimitta峁� m膩dhavaprachandakamalikhita峁� tallava峁単ikay膩 mand膩rik膩y膩 hasteadyanihita峁� t膩vat /
惭腻濒补迟墨尘腻诲丑补惫补., I.p.17

[27]:

dra峁ａ弓avyarup膩 ca bhavato vik膩rahetustadatraiv膩likhyat膩峁� m膩lat墨 /
Ibid., I.p.38

[28]:

tadupanaya citraphalaka峁� citravartik膩 艣ca /
Ibid.

[29]:

sa峁僩墨ta艣膩l膩 .,Ibid., II.p.44

[30]:

Ibid., VI.p.111

[31]:

tvamapi svabh膩vainaiva tasminnavasareasa峁僩墨taka峁� nartit膩si/
Ibid., II.p.48

[32]:

kathamavalokit膩budharak峁�ite kalaha峁僺akena saha pramodanirbhara峁� n峁泃yanty膩vita ev膩gachata岣� /
Ibid., X.p.216