Afghan Oul茅mas in the 20th Century: Bureaucracy and Clerical State
Journal name: Archives De Sciences Sociales Des Religions
Original article title: Les oul茅mas afghans au XXe si猫cle : bureaucratisation, contestation et gen猫se d鈥檜n 脡tat cl茅rical
The journal 鈥淎rchives of Social Sciences of Religions鈥� publishes advanced research on religion in French, English, and Spanish. It studies the sociology of religions and religious traditions or theologies. It is supported by the INSHS-CNRS (鈥淚nstitut des Sciences Humaines et Sociales鈥�)
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Gilles Dorronsoro
Archives De Sciences Sociales Des Religions:
(Founded in 1956 and published quarterly鈥�)
Full text available for: Les oul茅mas afghans au XXe si猫cle : bureaucratisation, contestation et gen猫se d鈥檜n 脡tat cl茅rical
Year: 2001 | Doi: 10.4000/assr.18313
Copyright (license): 漏 Archives de sciences sociales des religions
Summary of article contents:
Introduction
The article by Gilles Dorronsoro examines the evolution and role of Afghan ulema (Islamic scholars) in the 20th century within the socio-political landscape of Afghanistan. It highlights how the bureaucratization of the religious sphere combined with the ulema's contestation of state authority has shaped the emergence of a clerical state, particularly during and after the Soviet invasion. This state of affairs has also given rise to significant shifts in the balance of power among various religious factions, especially following the emergence of the Taliban.
Bureaucratization of the Ulema
The bureaucratization process regarding the ulema in Afghanistan began at the end of the 19th century, when the Afghan state sought to integrate religious scholars into its administrative framework. Under various regimes, from Abdul Rahm膩n Kh膩n to Najibullah, efforts were made to control the economic and educational aspects of the ulema鈥檚 influence. This included managing religious foundations, regulating religious education, and gradually institutionalizing the role of the ulema within state apparatus. However, the brutal suppression of religious authorities during the communist regime and the subsequent war disrupted this bureaucratization, leading to a fragmented religious landscape.
Contestation and the Ulema鈥檚 Role in Resistance
The ulema play a fundamental role in contesting state power, as demonstrated during pivotal moments, such as the revolt against King Amanullah in 1929. The article illustrates how, after the communist coup of 1978, the ulema transformed their role by leveraging their religious authority to legitimize popular uprising against the state. The concept of jihad became central to their rhetoric, positioning them as legitimate leaders in the resistance against the government and enabling them to unify different factions of opposition, thus establishing their dominance in the political arena.
The Rise of the Taliban
The arrival of the Taliban, emerging from fundamentalist madrasa networks in Pakistan, signified a major shift in the balance of power among religious factions in Afghanistan. The Taliban鈥檚 governance structure is distinctly clerical, consolidating power within the ulema and establishing a regime that prioritizes strict interpretations of Islamic law. They effectively marginalized traditional ulema, emphasizing a radical form of fundamentalism that aligned more with their specific ideology rather than the broader historical contexts of Afghan Islam. This transition illustrated how the Taliban's authority was tied closely to their control of the madrasa system and their ability to mobilize religious sentiments among the population.
Internal Divisions Among the Ulema
Internally, the ulema in Afghanistan are not a monolithic group; distinctions exist between those educated in state-run madrasa and those trained in traditional, private ones. The opposition between Islamist ulema and traditionalists further complicated the political dynamics as various factions aimed to assert their influence in the newly emerging state order. The rise of the Taliban not only challenged the traditional hierarchy of religious authorities, but also spurred competition among different Islamic movements, each vying for legitimacy and control in the aftermath of the Soviet withdrawal and the civil unrest that followed.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the examination of the ulema鈥檚 role in Afghanistan during the 20th century highlights significant transformations within the religious and political fabric of the country. The interplay between bureaucratization, resistance, and the emergent Taliban regime reveals how the ulema have navigated and contended with state authority while adapting to the prevailing socio-political circumstances. As Afghanistan continues to evolve, understanding these dynamics will be crucial for grasping the ongoing complexities of its religious and political landscape.
FAQ section (important questions/answers):
What role did Afghan ulema play in the 20th century?
Afghan ulema were central in contesting the state's authority and shaping religious legitimacy. They protested against reforms, particularly during the 1929 revolt against King Amanullah, and gained dominance in the political space during the civil war starting in 1978.
How did the Soviet invasion affect the ulema's position?
The Soviet invasion initially sidelined the ulema, leading to repression and eliminating many clergy members. However, once the Soviets installed a regime, they attempted to integrate the ulema into state structures to regain legitimacy and counter opposition.
What was the bureaucratization of the ulema in Afghanistan?
Bureaucratization involved integrating ulema into the state structure, controlling their functions and educational institutions. This process began in the late 19th century, was interrupted by conflict, but attempted to resume under successive governments post-Soviet invasion.
What characterized the emergence of the Taliban in Afghanistan?
The emergence of the Taliban in 1994 marked a fundamentalist turn in Afghan politics. They marginalized previous religious leaders and adopted a rigid interpretation of Islam, establishing a clerical state that opposed secular influences and traditional elites.
How did internal tensions among ulema manifest during the civil war?
Internal tensions arose as new, often younger, Islamist ulema competed with established, traditional families for influence. This rivalry highlighted the shift towards a more radical Islamic interpretation, as seen with the rise of the Taliban.
What was the Taliban's approach to governance and the law?
The Taliban relied heavily on interpretations of shariat for governance, eschewing modern political structures. Their authority was rooted in religious legitimacy, attempting to combine traditional Islamic principles with state functions.
How did the Taliban's rule impact women in Afghanistan?
The Taliban imposed severe restrictions on women's rights, enforcing strict dress codes and limiting their freedoms. While some measures appeared to protect certain traditional practices, overall, women's conditions worsened significantly under their rule.
Glossary definitions and references:
Theological and religious glossary list for 鈥淎fghan Oul茅mas in the 20th Century: Bureaucracy and Clerical State鈥�. The list explains important keywords that occur in this and other scholarly articles. It is also linked to the glossary for understanding that concept in the context of History, Religion, Philosophy, Theology, Sociology etc.
1) Afghanistan:
Afghanistan's history is marked by the struggle for power between various factions, particularly after the revolution in 1978, leading to significant social and political transformations. The oul茅mas played a crucial role in shaping politics and governance in Afghanistan amidst these changes.
2) Power:
Power in Afghanistan has often been contested, with the state and religious leaders vying for legitimacy. The Taliban's takeover in the 1990s exemplifies how power dynamics can shift dramatically, as they implemented a clerical state governed by the interpretation of sharia and religious authority.
3) Woman (Women):
Women under Taliban rule experienced significant restrictions, with policies designed to limit their roles in society, suppressing their rights to education, work, and freedom of movement.
4) Student:
Students in Afghanistan, particularly those attending madrasas in Pakistan, played a significant role in the rise of the Taliban. These students, known as Taliban, were instrumental in creating a structured movement that intertwined education, religious teachings, and political engagement.
5) Pakistan:
Pakistan has been a critical player in the evolution of Afghan political dynamics, especially through the establishment of madrasas that trained many Afghan students. The relationship between Afghan and Pakistani religious institutions facilitated the rise of the Taliban, whose ideology and governance were influenced by their educational backgrounds.
6) Network:
The Taliban established a network of support derived from religious madrasas and tribal affiliations that enabled them to gain power. This network helped solidify their control and facilitated the governance structure they implemented once in power.
7) Education:
Education in Afghanistan, particularly religious education, became a focal point of state policy. The Taliban's emergence transformed educational institutions, as they enforced a strict interpretation of Islam and limited the educational opportunities for women.
8) Family:
Family ties were crucial in the political landscape of Afghanistan, particularly among the oul茅mas, whose influence often came through familial connections to traditional power structures. Marriages among influential families further entrenched their power within the Afghan context.
9) Police:
The Taliban's moral police, known as the Amr bi l-ma'ruf wa-nahy can al-munkar, enforced strict adherence to their interpretation of Islamic law. This police force conducted regular inspections to maintain their vision of public morality.
10) Khan:
The term khan refers to traditional tribal leaders in Afghanistan, whose influence was often challenged by the rise of the Taliban and their clerical state. While khans traditionally held power in rural areas, the Taliban marginalized them in favor of religious figures.
11) Lead:
Leaders of the Taliban, who often came from madrasa backgrounds, led the movement through a combination of military might and religious authority, ultimately establishing themselves as the ruling power in Afghanistan after the civil war.
12) Peshawar:
Peshawar became a key location for Afghan resistance movements, serving as a base for many fighters and political groups, including the Taliban and other Islamist factions during the civil conflict and the Soviet invasion.
13) Politics:
Politics in Afghanistan have historically been intertwined with religious authority, particularly evident during the Taliban's rise to power. The intersection of religion and state governance has shaped Afghan political life profoundly throughout the 20th century.
14) Minister:
The Taliban appointed ministers to oversee various aspects of governance, but these appointments were often aligned with their ideological beliefs, creating a government structure that prioritized religious law over conventional state functions.
15) Prayer:
Prayer holds significant importance in Islamic culture, and the Taliban enforced strict regulations on religious practices, requiring adherence to prayer schedules as part of their moral governance.
16) Judge:
Judges, or qazis, under Taliban rule, were responsible for interpreting and applying sharia law, often leading to severe penalties, including public punishments for various offenses deemed contrary to their strict interpretation of Islam.
17) Revolution:
The 1978 revolution marked a turning point in Afghanistan's history, shifting the balance of power and leading to a series of conflicts that ultimately facilitated the rise of religious and militant groups, including the Taliban.
18) Knowledge:
Knowledge, particularly religious knowledge, became a source of power in Afghanistan, with the oul茅mas leveraging their understanding of Islam to influence political decision-making and establish legitimacy against the state.
19) Marriage:
Marriage practices in Afghanistan, heavily influenced by tribal and religious customs, came under scrutiny during Taliban rule, which sought to impose strict regulations on women and family structures in accordance with their interpretation of sharia.
20) Prison:
The Taliban's penal system involved harsh treatments, including torture and separation of genders, reflecting their broader agenda to enforce a strict moral order based on their interpretation of sharia law, often leading to severe punishments.
21) Market:
Markets in Afghanistan functioned under strict regulations imposed by the Taliban, who monitored transactions to ensure conformity with their moral codes, profoundly affecting economic activities and social life.
22) Logic (Logical):
The logic of governance under the Taliban was rooted in an extreme interpretation of religious principles, which shaped their administrative practices and justification for actions taken against those perceived as non-compliant with Islamic law.
23) King:
The monarchy represented a different era in Afghanistan's governance before the rise of radical groups like the Taliban. King Amanullah's reforms in the 1920s met with opposition from the oul茅mas, marking the beginning of significant political tensions related to the integration of religious authority into governance.
24) Recognition:
The official recognition of religious leaders in the Taliban regime established a clerical state where scholars held significant power, influencing not just politics but the everyday lives of Afghans.
25) Repression:
The Taliban employed repressive measures to maintain control, especially against women and those who opposed their ideology, resulting in significant human rights violations and resistance from various factions.
26) Pilgrimage:
The Taliban regulated religious practices such as the pilgrimage (hajj), attempting to control religious expressions in line with their strict interpretation of Islam, thereby influencing the spiritual lives of millions.
27) Withdrawal:
The withdrawal of Soviet forces in 1989 marked a critical juncture in Afghan history, leading to a power vacuum and subsequently the rise of the Taliban as a dominant force in the ensuing civil conflict.
28) Evolution:
The evolution of the Taliban from a group of students to a ruling entity exemplified a transformative journey influenced by the socio-political landscape of Afghanistan and its neighboring countries.
29) Merchant:
Merchants in Taliban-controlled areas operated within the confines of strict regulations, yet some benefited from the return of security and minimal taxation policies that the Taliban implemented to garner support.
30) Religion:
Religion serves as both a source of authority and a tool for governance in Afghanistan, particularly under the Taliban, whose regime was characterized by an enforcement of their interpretation of Islamic law.
31) Freedom:
Freedom, especially in terms of personal liberties and women's rights, significantly diminished under Taliban rule, reflecting a drastic shift away from previously held freedoms experienced by the Afghan populace.
32) Hundred:
The mention of hundreds of scholars and religious figures highlights the capacity for mobilization among the oul茅mas and their significant influence on both political processes and societal changes.
33) Ghazni:
The city of Ghazni represents a historical center of religious and political conflict, illustrating the challenges faced by both the state and religious authorities in maintaining control over diverse opinions and factions.
34) Secret (Secrecy, Secretly):
The institutional mechanisms, such as the KHAD's secret directives, exemplify the lengths to which various regimes would go to control religious narratives and legitimize their governance.
35) Murder (Murdering, Murdered):
Murder, as both a crime and a political tool, was addressed within the context of Taliban rule, where conflicts over justice often resulted in severe interpretations of sharia law, complicating already fraught societal relations.
36) India:
India's role as a center for Islamic education, particularly at Deoband, greatly influenced the formation of the clerical classes in Afghanistan, feeding into the larger narrative of religious and political transformations.
37) Music:
Music was banned under the Taliban's moral edicts, reflecting their attempt to regulate cultural expressions and enforce a rigid interpretation of moral values in society.
38) Limit (Limiting, Limited):
The limits imposed by the Taliban on various social practices and behaviors reveal the acute measures taken to produce a society aligned strictly with their vision of Islam.
39) Pari:
[see source text or glossary: #Pari#]
40) Bird:
The Taliban likewise prohibited the keeping and selling of birds, which symbolized their broader cultural suppression and enforcement of austere practices.
41) Educational institution:
Educational institutions, especially madrasas, emerged as pivotal in the political landscape, producing a generation of religious leaders who aligned with Taliban ideologies and practices.
42) Northern India:
Northern India has historically served as a hub for Islamic scholarship, providing a training ground for many Afghan students who would later play significant roles in the Taliban's formation.
43) Living Being:
The prohibition of images depicting living beings underscores the Taliban's stringent adherence to a theoretical interpretation of Islam, impacting artistic expressions and cultural practices.
44) New Year:
The celebration of the New Year, linked to cultural heritage, was banned under the Taliban as part of their attempt to eradicate pre-Islamic traditions and enforce their interpretation of religious principles.
45) Transformation (Transform, Transforming):
The transformation of power dynamics in Afghanistan, particularly with the rise of the Taliban, exemplifies how social and political structures can rapidly shift based on religious ideology and community support.
46) Balochistan:
Balochistan provided a backdrop for the proliferation of madrasas that trained Taliban members, illustrating how regional dynamics influenced the rise of fundamentalist movements across borders.
47) Celebration:
Celebration of social and religious events was heavily restricted under Taliban rule, reflecting broader efforts to impose a rigid moral code on Afghan society.
48) Sovereignty:
The concept of sovereignty in Afghanistan has been complicated by foreign interventions and internal conflicts, highlighting the challenges faced by the Taliban in establishing authoritative control.
49) Perception:
Perception of the Taliban has been shaped by their governance practices and public relations strategies, which sought to present their rule as a legitimate manifestation of Islamic authority.
50) Separation (Separateness, Separate, Separated):
The separation of genders in public life became a hallmark of Taliban policy, reflecting their interpretation of sharia and impacting women's freedom and societal roles.
51) Commitment:
The commitment to Islamic principles often justified the Taliban's stringent governance and legal interpretations, influencing their policies and actions within society.
52) Uniform (Uniformity):
The uniformity of the Taliban's ideological stance was critical in establishing their authority, showcasing a consolidated approach to governance based on their specific interpretation of Islam.
53) Aristotle:
[see source text or glossary: #Aristotle#]
54) Dimension:
The dimension of religious authority within the Taliban regime illustrates the complex interplay between faith, governance, and societal norms.
55) Painting:
The prohibition of painting living beings was part of a larger agenda to impose strict interpretations of religious law, affecting cultural expressions in Afghan society.
56) Branch (Branches):
Branches of religious authority emerged as the Taliban consolidated power, leading to the establishment of a clerical state where scholars governed Islamic and secular aspects of life.
57) Epidemic:
[see source text or glossary: #Epidemic#]
58) Theology:
Theology profoundly influenced the Taliban's governance, as their understanding of Islam guided their laws, practices, and policies, solidifying their claim to authority.
59) Weakness:
Weakness in the Afghan state allowed for the rise of the Taliban, who capitalized on the absence of effective governance to impose their ideology and establish control.
60) External:
External forces played a role in shaping Afghanistan's political landscape, as foreign interventions and support for various factions influenced the power dynamics both during and after the civil war.
61) Donation:
The practice of donation, especially regarding marriage customs, was influenced by the Taliban's interpretation of sharia, impacting social relations within communities.
62) Festival:
Festivals traditionally celebrated in Afghanistan faced restrictions under Taliban rule, as the regime attempted to eradicate practices they deemed un-Islamic.
63) Village:
Villages often served as microcosms of Afghan society, where Taliban governance was enforced through local councils and religious leaders, affecting everyday life and community interactions.
64) Torture:
Torture was a common practice in prisons under various Afghan regimes, including the Taliban, as strict enforcement of law often led to harsh treatment of detainees.
65) Soldier:
Soldiers were indoctrinated by clerical leaders, as the state integrated oul茅mas into military ranks to facilitate ideological loyalty and reinforce the Taliban's political authority.
66) Garment:
The garment became a symbol of Taliban enforcement of gender segregation, with the burqa imposed as mandatory attire for women, impacting their public visibility and agency.
67) Extreme:
The extreme measures taken by the Taliban in enforcing their interpretation of Islam reflect a commitment to ideological purity, often at the cost of human rights and personal freedoms.
68) Violent:
Violent enforcement of Taliban laws was characteristic of their regime, showcasing their intolerance for dissent and the lengths they would go to impose their beliefs.
69) Inertia:
Inertia among the population concerning resistance to Taliban rule indicates a complex societal response to authoritarian governance in the backdrop of ongoing conflict.
70) Vehicle:
Vehicles served both as practical tools for daily life and as means of enforcing Taliban policy, as local officials often regulated their use to maintain order.
71) Weapon:
Weapons were pivotal during the conflict in Afghanistan, with various factions, including the Taliban, securing military dominance by capitalizing on local and foreign support.
72) Wealth:
Wealth accumulation among Taliban leaders contrasted sharply with the impoverished conditions of many Afghans, highlighting disparities that persisted despite the regime's ideological goals.
73) Summer:
[see source text or glossary: #Summer#]
74) Speech:
Speeches made by Taliban leaders often emphasized their commitment to Islamic governance, shaping public perception and reinforcing their authority over the population.
75) Pigeon:
The prohibition of keeping pigeons illustrates the Taliban鈥檚 extreme measures to control cultural expressions and activities deemed contrary to their interpretation of Islamic values.
[Note: The above list is limited to 75. Total glossary definitions available: 105]