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(a) The Beginning Of The Structural Stupa The earliest known religious monuments in India appear in the form of stupas. According to Buddhist tradition the separate relics of the body of Gautama Buddha, who died at Kusinagara, were distributed among eight kingdoms and enshrined within stupas at their capitals. 5 3. V. A. Smith. 'The Jain stupa and other Antiquities of Mathura. ( Allahabad, 1901) pp, '1-13: pls, I-V 4. Al. (1590), pp...78-79. 5. The Buddha died in the land of Malla's who did honour to bones with dancing, music, garlands and perfumes. Ajatasatru from Rajagrha, the Licchavis of Vaisali, the Sakyas of Kapilvastu, the Bulis of Allakapa, the Mallas of Pava, the koliyas of Ramagrama and a brhamana from Vethadipa claimed their share in the division of the relics.

The Evolution of the Caitya-grha 5 The only extant stupa of a probable pre-Asokan date (about 450 B. C.) is that at Piprawa ( Dist. Basti, U. P ). The stupa is built of large bricks and has a diameter of 34.8 meters and an extant height of 6.4 meters, indicating a low ratio of height to diameter, which is a sign of antiquity. According to the inscription the relics found in the stupa pertained to Buddha himself." A series of low flattish stupas, fifteen in number composed of mud or mud-bricks with baked brick-revetments, standing at Lauriyas may be regarded roughly, contemporary with the Piprawa stupa.⁹ (b) The Stupas of The Mauryan Period (c. 322 B. C. 185 B. C.) With the probable exception of the Piprawa Stupa and the Stupas of Lauriya, the earliest examples composed of mud or mud-bricks, Asoka (c. 273-232 B. C.) is credited with the construction of a circular tumulus or stupas of brick in many It appears that after the division had been made, a messenger, of the Mauryas of Pippalivana came for portion of the relics. As there was nothing left, he took pieces of coal which the Mauryans began to revere and placed in a stupa. Thus, originally there were eight stupas : in Rajagriha, Vaisali. Kapilavastu, Allakapa, Ramagrama, Vethadipa, Pava and Kusinagara, besides those erected by Brhamana Drona and the Mauryans of Pippalivana. Bapat P. V. ' 2500 years of Buddhism.' P. 279. 6. W. C. Peppe and V. A. Smith, the Piprahwa stupa, containing relics of Buddha. Journal of Royal Asiatic Society, 1898 pp. 537 ff. 7. Al. p. 79. 8. One of the two villages of same name in District Champaran. N. Bihar. ARASI 1906-07 (1909) pp 119 ff; 1935-36 (1938) pp. 55. ff. 9. Al. p. 79

6 The Structural Temples of Gujarat parts of his empire. From his own words in Edicts (Niglival pillar inscription), we learn that he enlarged, to twice its size, the Stupa of Konakamana, the previous Buddha, at Nigliva and built for the sect of Ajivikas three sets of cave-dwellings in the Barabar hills of Bihar. 9 a He is also credited with the construction of the first stupas at Sanchi 10 and Sarnatha, 11 though tradition assigns him many other stupas including Dharamrajika at Taxila. 12 The great Stupa at Sanchi as it now stands is a segment of a sphere of which the proper height should be 23.5 ms. while the diameter at the base of the dome is 33.5 ms. The original structure of Asoka (c. 250 B. C.) the nucleus of the present one, had somewhat smaller dimensions, and was evidently made of bricks 13 The Excavation of Dharmarajika Stupa* At Saranatha. It revealed six successive enlargements of the original Stupa The original structure raised by Asoka, was 1.35 ms. in diameter. The first addition was made in the Kushan period. The second enlargement came in the fifth or sixth century A. D. with the addition of circumambulatory (Pradakshinapatha), nearly 16 ft. wide, around the Stupa and ancompassed by a solid outer wall, 1.3 ms. high pierced by four door ways in the four directions. In the third enlargement in the seventh century the pradakshinapatha was filled up and access to the stupa was provided by placing four monolithic staircases. The next two additions were made in the ninth-eleventh centuries. The sixth and the last encasing of the stupa took place when the monastary of 9 a. Mookerjee A. K. 'Asoka' p. 81. 10. Al. plt. xxv 11. Al. plt. xxvi. 12. Al. p. 53 plt. xiv. 13. Mookerjee A. K. Asoka p. 88. * This stupa was pulled down in 1794 by Jagat Singh's workmen.

The Evolution of the Caitya-grha Kumaradevi was built in the twelth century. 14 7 Remains of a unique type of stupa-shrine of Mauryan date (c. B. C 250) have been recovered at Bairat 15 in the formor Jaipur state. The main interest of the monument lies in the enclosing circular shrine (diam. 8-2 ms.) which was made of lime plastered panels of brick work alternating with twentysix octagonal pillars of wood. The shrine was entered from the east through a small portico, supported on two wooden pillars and was surmounted by a 2.1 ms. wide circular processional patha with an opening on the east, the whole being enclosed at a later date within a rectangular compound (21.3 * 13.4 ms.) containing an open space for assembly in front of the entrance. This stupa shrine resembled in plan and design a circular caitya-cave in the Tuljalena group at Junnar, dating from c. first century B. C.16 The original brick Stupa at Bharhut (Madhya Bharat) was of the Mauryan date, probably Asokan (c. 250 B. C.)17. At Nandangarh (N. Bihar) occurs a unique type of brick stupa built on multiple polygonal terraces with re-entrant angles. This stupa is not earlier than 100 B. C.18 (c) The refinements of Stupas during The Period Of the Sungas And The Andhras (c. B. C. 185 to A. D. 150) During the period of the Sungas (c. B. C. 185-c. 70 B. C. ) in Northern India and the Andhras (c. B. C 185-c. 150 A. D.) in Southern India, as a whole the refinements took the form of replacing the impermanent materials of which the religious monuments had heither to, been composed by others of a more 14. Agrawala V. S. 'Saranath' p. 15 15. Sahni D. R. Archaeological Remains and Excavation at Bairat,' Pp. 28 ff. 16. Al p 80-81. 17. IABH, p, 23. also A. Cunnigham 'Stupa of Bharhut' (London, 1879) pp. 4 ff. 18. ARASI 1935-36 (1938) pp. 63 ff: 1936-37 (1940) pp. 47 ff;

The Structural Temples of Gujarat stable nature, in a word stone was employed where previously had been brick and wood. From the constructional advances shown in the stupas of Bharhut and Sanchi Torana. it can be said that the art of masonary building was progressing slowly from timber construction to stone. 19 Taking the sequence of events at Sanchi as typical of the movement as a whole, one of the first measures of reconstruction at this sanctuary began as early as 150 B. C, when the existing stupa was enlarged nearly twice its previous size. In the enlargement of the stupa the new structure was made to cover or envelope (achchhadya ) an area of 36 meters in diameter, and to rise to a total height of 16.4 ms. the size it is at the present day. 20 Around it was alse added a terrace (medhi) 4.8 ms. from the ground thus providing a separate and upper ambulatory passage, access to which was obtained by a double stairway (sopana) on the southern side. The whole of the building was then finished off by means of a facing dry masonary composed of hammer-dressed stones laid in fairly even flattened crest of the dome was surmounted by a superstructure of particular design consisting of a square railing enclosing a pedestal (harmika) which supported the shaft (yashti) of a triple umbrella. 21 courses. The Somewhat similar changes as those effected at Sanchi appear to have been carried out in the Stupa of Bharhut. In this instance, however, the brick stupa was not enlarged as it retained its original dimensions of some 20.7 ms. in diameter, but the railing around it was reconstructed. In size the Bharhut stupa was only about half that of Sanchi its railing being a little over seven feet in height, but in marked contrast to the solid simplicity of the latter, every portion of its stone work is richly carved in bas-relief portraying incidents in the 19. IABH. p. pp. 16-17. 20. IABH. p. pl. X Fig. 1. 21. IABH. p. pp. 17.

The Evolution of the Caitya-griha 9 Jatakas, or scenes connected with the life of Buddha. The remains of the railing is preserved in the Indian Museum, Calcutta.22 Sacred shrines and stately monuments were raised all around as the account of the chinese pilgrim, Yuan Chwang, gives us a glimpse of the past splendour of the sacred site, known as Bodha gaya.23 Yuan Chawng ascribes the erection of the original Bodhi shrine to Emperor Asoka. No vestiges of such a shrine can, however, be found at present. Scholars are of the opinion that the Bodhi shrine carved in a Bharhut relief might represent the one erected by Asoka. The stately structure, which we see nowadays, is a later erection. This temple has been restored and renovated many times. From the descripton of Yuan Chawng it appears that the temple, essentially in its present shape and appearance, existed already in the seventh century A. D.24 From the remains, around the temple it can be said that an important railing was also erected, its shape, however, having to conform to the square plan of the building it enclosed, was not circular but disposed around a quadrangle measuring 44-2 by 32.9 ms.. Although in much the same style as the Bharhut railing, in size it is slightly smaller, as it is only 2 meters high, and its general dimensions are less massive. From these more slender proportions and its refined treatment, as well as from the character of bas-relief it is presumed to be later than either the Bharhut or Sanchi examples, and has been assigned to the early part of the first century B. C.25 22. IABH, p. p. 18 23 9.6 Kims, south of Gaya. 24. *2500 years of Buddhism', p. 310 25. IABH, p, p. 18.

10 The Structural Temples of Gujarat The erection of substantial stone railings to enclose the sacred portion of stupas and shrines was not, the only eleboration effected in these structures. Entrances, particularly of religious buildings have been regarded as architectural features preeminently suitable for ornamental treatment, and the openings in the stupa railing through which admission was obtained to the ambulatory were an invitation to add some kind of imposing gateways to the scheme. This took the form of a torana, a special kind of entrance archway. From its not infrequent appearance in the bas-reliefs the torana seems to have been accepted as the traditional type of ceremonial portal so that it was an appropriate addition to the Buddhist sanctuary.2 The earliest known Torana is that which formed the entrance to the eastern side of Bharhut stupa, the only surviving example of four similar gateways, and it bears an inscription stating that it was built during the reign of Sungas" (184-72 B. C.)27 The torana at Bharhut, although the oldest of the style and displaying that is artistic and instructive, it is entirely eclipsed by a series of similar gateways of a richer and far more impressive design which were shortly afterwards erected at Sanchi.28 (d) The Stupas Of Western India (78 A. D. -c. 400 A. D.) The Stupas that have, so far, been found or uncovered in western India are of brick. The great Boria stupa in the Jungles on the Girnar Mt. at Junagadh had a solid burnt brick core. The relics were imbedded in this brick-structure at a considerable depth about ground level. The find of a few sculptured marble slabs, however, showed that some stone- 26. IABH, p. p. 18 27. IABH, p. p. P. p. 18 28. IABH. p, p. 19 Pl. xi opp. p. 18.

The Evolution of the Caitya-grha 11 work existed, probably as railing and crowning umbrella. The casket containing the relics are on view to the Junagadh Museum. 29 The relics of the Sopara Stupa, which are assigned to the middle of the 2 nd cent. A. D. were discovered by Dr. Bhagwanlal Indraji in 1882 at a depth of 3.7 ms. from the top of the mound at Sopara in a regularly built chamber of bricks of the early centuries of the Christian era. They consisted of a large stone-casket with a lid, which when opened disclosed copper-casket; around which, eight bronze images of Buddha were arranged.30 The Stupa, At Devani-Mori.* With an elongated drum it rests on two square platforms, the lower one of which measures 26 meters square. The first phase of the existing stupa may be dated (A. D. 300-400 ). Twenty two images of Buddha in dhyana-mudra have been found. 29 Chronology of Gujarat PL. XV (B) opp. p. 72 30. Chronology of Gujarat p. 91 * Taluka Bhiloda, Dist. Sabarkantha, Gujarat. P. S. Recently its relic-casket is unearthed. It bears an inscription which records that the stupa was erected in years 127 of the Kathika kings, while Rudrasena was the king. On ascribing the year to the Saka Era that was in common use in the Ksatrapa kingdom, the year would correspond 205-06 A. D. and king Rudrasena would be identical with king Rudrasena 1 of the Kardamaka lineage of Western Ksatrapas. (Journal of Oriental Institute IX. p. 459.). But on several grounds the stupa seems to be of a later period. It is, therefore, proposed to ascribe the year to the Kalcuri Era and equate it with 376-77 A. D. (Journal of the Gujarat Research society XXV, 100, p. 289). Rudrasena is accordingly identified with Rudrasena III among the Western Ksatrapas. It is also possible that the year belong to a Kathika Era, the epoch and origin of which are unknown and king Rudrasena belong to Kathika dynasty which has come to be known only through this record. (Journal of Oriental Institute XV, pp. 59-65)

12 The Structural Temples of Gujarat In the second phase of the stupa extensive repairs were done to the upper platform constituting the Pradaksina-patha. 31 At places, the round projecting drums were straightened. Decorated bricks were used at indiscriminately. A portion of the apse of the stupa was exposed.32 (e) The Stupas of S. E. India (c. 200 B. C.-c. 4 th cent. A. D.) Between the second century B. C. and fourth century A. D. were built numerous stupas along the Krisna in S. E. India on sites of 1. Jaggayyapeta 2. Bhattiprolu 3. Gudivada 4. Ghanta- sala 5. Garikapada in Krsna district and 6. Padda maddur 7. Pedda Gangam 8. Amaravati and 9. Nagargunakonda in Guntur district. 33 These stupas consisted of brick built hemespherical domes on a low base and were characterised by rectangular projections from the base of the dome at four cardinal points, the projections supporting a row of five ornamental pillars. The earlier examples at Bhattiprolu and Gudivada were of solid brickwork while those at Amaravati and Ghantasala with the interior radiating brick walls, with a hub and spokes, the spaces between the walls being filled with earth-packing, before the outer brick casings was constructed. The Stupas were finished with plaster and most of the larger ones were embelished at the base with sculptured marble panels, the example at Amaravati being particularly noted for them. The Superstructure of the Stupas is invariably missing, but it can be visualized by contemporary plastic representations on dimensions, the Amaravati marble friezes. 34 As regards their diameter ranges from 9.1 ms. for the smallest example at Jaggayyapeta to upwards of 30.5 ms, for those at Bhattiprolu, Gudivada, Ghantasala and Amaravati, the last having an 31. Indian Archaeology 60-61 pl. xi B. 32. Ibid p. 10 33. IABH, p. pp 46, 48; plt. xxviii A. Fig. 2 opp. p. 45 34. J. Burgess. The Buddhist stupas of Amaravati and Jaggayyapeta (London, 1887) Pl. I

The Evolution of the Caitya-griha 13 approximate diameter of 39-5 ms. for the Stupa and 58.5 ms. for the enclosing railing with a conjectured height about 30.5 ms. The examples at Nagargunakonda, definately dateble to second-third centuries, range in diameter from 8-4 ms. to 32.5 ms. 35