Rivers in Ancient India (study)
by Archana Sarma | 2019 | 49,356 words
This page relates 鈥楧escriptions of nature and natural objects鈥� of the study on the rivers in ancient India as reflected in the Vedic and Puranic texts. These pages dicsusses the elements of nature and the importance of rivers (Nadi) in Vedic and Puranic society. Distinctive traits of rivers are investigated from descriptions found in the Vedas (Samhitas), Brahmanas, Aranyakas, Upanishads and Puranas. The research is concluded by showing changing trends of rivers from ancient to modern times.
Go directly to: Footnotes.
2. Descriptions of nature and natural objects
In the 峁欢惫别诲补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻, the sense of reverence was at the root of the religion. Everything which is evil may become a direct object of adoration. The existence of divinities was believed not only behind the natural phenomena but also in the stones and trees and images of earth, wood etc.[1] Heaven, earth, mountains, rivers, plants might be bestowed as divine powers. The animals which surround man, the horse by which he is borne into battle, the cow which supplies him with nourishment, even the god, the bird of omen and other animals might be invoked. Even objects fashioned by the hand of man, weapons, the war-car, drum, the plough, the furrow as well as ritual elements, such as the pressing stones and the sacrificial post might be adored. Every object as well as every idea of mind in the visible creation is capable of elevation to the rank of gods. They are either abstract personifications often very ancient indeed such as Puramdhi, i.e. abundance Aramati, i.e. piety, 础蝉耻苍墨迟墨, i.e. blessedness, 惭峁泃测耻, i.e. death, Manyu, i.e. wrath, or defied objects, such as 厂补谤补蝉惫补迟墨 and Sindhu which are at once rivers and goddess.[2] Many inanimate objects are invoked as if they are alive in the 峁欢惫别诲补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻.[3] The stones are said to roar with green mouth.[4] Rivers are said to have harnessed their car.[5]
The hills and Mountains were worshipped by the people in the 峁歡vedic age. Mountains have been held by ancient people to be the domiciles. Parvata, i.e. a Mountain is frequently referred to Indra. In one passage, both Parvata and Indra are entreated to purify the intellects of the worshippers.[6] Indra and Parvata are also urged to destroy the enemies in battle with the thunderbolt,[7] and Parvata separately to grant food together with the waters.[8] Moreover, the downward slopes of the Mountains and the assemblages of the rivers are considered as sacred, where man used to perform sacrifices. According to R.T.H. Griffith, Parvata is the presiding Genius of the Mountains and ruler of the clouds,[9] which is clearly explained by S膩ya峁嚹乧膩rya in his commentary.[10]
The Vedic 膧ryans lived in close propinquity with the nature and environment. It is found that climate of the Sapta-Sindhu was favourable for abundant growth of trees, plants, herbs, fruits and flowers etc. In the 峁欢惫别诲补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻, it is found that 惫峁涐赋蝉补 is the ordinary term for tree.[11] Those plants which have healing power or the herbal plants are called 辞峁诲丑颈.[12] Virut is the term for minor vegetable growths of herbs.[13]
Besides these, the 峁欢惫别诲补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻 also describes other group of plants,e.g. 辫丑补濒颈苍墨 or fruitful plants,[14] 补辫丑补濒腻 or fruitless plants,[15] 补辫耻蝉辫腻, i.e. blossomless,[16] 辫耻蝉辫颈峁嚹�, i.e. those that blossom,[17] 濒颈产耻箩腻,[18] or vratati,[19] i.e. creeping plants, shrubs, grasses and bushes etc. A large number of trees, plants, herbs, creepers and grasses are mentioned in the 峁欢惫别诲补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻. It mentions many small and big trees. Some of the trees mentioned in the 峁欢惫别诲补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻 are 础艣惫补迟迟丑腻, 碍丑腻诲颈谤补, 艢颈峁兣沘辫腻, 艢补尘墨 etc. Among them, 础艣惫补迟迟丑腻 or peepal is the tall and big tree. It is called 础艣惫补迟迟丑补, i.e. horse-stand, because the shade of the tree was used for stabling horses.[20]
The Sapta-Sindhu region was full of fruit-bearing trees. There are available ripe fruits in that region.[21] Specific names of vegetables or fruits are not mentioned in detail in the 峁欢惫别诲补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻 as in later literature.
In the 峁欢惫别诲补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻, descriptions of herbs and creepers are found.[22] There are mentions 辞峁诲丑颈s. S膩ya峁嚹乧膩rya explains the term 辞峁诲丑颈 补蝉鈥�辞峁岣� 辫腻办补岣� 膩su dh墨yati iti o峁dhaya岣�鈥�.[23] Such herbs cure many diseases. These have healing power.[24] The term virut, which means a creeper, is defined by 艢膩ya峁嚹乧膩rya 补蝉鈥�辞峁诲丑颈[25] and 濒补迟腻.[26]
In the world of plant, soma is the most celebrated plant. The whole ninth 尘补峁囜笉补濒补 is devoted to Soma or the defied soma juice. From the soma plant, soma juice is extracted. This plant grows in the hills.[27]
In the 峁欢惫别诲补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻, there are different kinds of water plants and weeds are mentioned. Among them, lotus is very important. There are two varieties of lotus, i.e. 笔耻峁囜笉补谤墨办补[28] and 笔耻峁补谤补.[29] 笔耻峁囜笉补谤墨办补 or white lotus grows in rivers.[30] Another water-plant called Vetasa or Calumus rotang is mentioned in the 峁欢惫别诲补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻[31] and later literature.[32] It grows near lakes and rivers.
The environment of Sapta-Sindhu was also suitable for growing crops. Yava or barley was the major food grain that was cultivated.[33] The word 诲丑腻苍测补产墨箩补 mentioned in a 峁歡vedic verse possibly means grain-seed.[34] The word 诲丑腻苍腻 mentioned in the 峁欢惫别诲补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻 means fried barely, i.e. 产丑谤补峁ａ弓补测补惫补[35] or 产丑补谤补峁ａ弓补测补惫腻岣�.[36] Wheat or 骋辞诲丑奴尘补 was not mentioned in the 峁欢惫别诲补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻.
Existences of animals are also found in the Sapta -Sindhu region. In the plains, hills and forests of Sapta-Sindhu, both herbivorous and carnivorous animals are found. Such animals are divided into two parts-domestic and wild animals. Cow and horse are regarded as domestic animals, i.e. 驳谤腻尘测腻岣� 驳补惫腻艣惫腻诲补测补岣�鈥� 鈥� Among the various domestic animals, cow is regarded as the most valuable domestic animal. Cow has been given much importance by the 峁歡vedic seers.[37] [38] The cow was of utmost importance to the people for her milk and milk products. These are curds and ghee which formed major portion of the food of the people. Cow-hide was used in number of occasions. Oxen were used to plough the field. The cow was a real boon to the 膧ryans. Because of such usefulness, it was regarded so sacred and considered 补驳丑苍测腻, i.e. not to be killed. Horse,[39] i.e. 础艣惫补 was common and highly valued domestic animal in the 峁歡vedic age. There were large numbers of horses in the Sapta-Sindhu.[40] Horses were used for different purposes, i.e. for riding,[41] drawing chariots,[42] in war,[43] to carry load,[44] etc. It is clear from the D膩nastuties that horses were given as gifts.[45]
Camel, i.e. Ustra,[46] large flocks of sheep, i.e. Avi[47] and goat, i.e. Aja[48] were, no doubt, kept by the people. Besides these animals, other important animals used for various purposes are Bull, i.e. 搁峁产丑补,[49] Buffalo, i.e. 惭补丑颈峁,[50] Dog, i.e. 艢惫补苍[51] and Elephant[52] etc.
Among the wild animals Lion or 厂颈峁僪补 was frequently mentioned in the 峁欢惫别诲补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻.[53] It was a carnivorous animal found in the plains and hills of Sapta-Sindhu.[54] Mentions of 痴测腻驳丑谤补 or Tigers are not found in the 峁欢惫别诲补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻 but in later 厂补峁僪颈迟腻蝉.[55] Wild-elephants were known as Hastin[56] or 惭峁沢补丑补蝉迟颈苍.[57] Other Animals found in this region is the Boar, i.e. 痴补谤腻丑补[58] or 厂奴办补谤补,[59] Wolf or 痴峁沰补,[60] 尝辞辫腻艣补,[61] Deer or 惭峁沢补, i.e. 碍峁涐梗峁嚹� or dark[62] Rohita or red,[63] 辫峁涐梗补迟墨 or spotted deer,[64] 痴峁涐梗腻办补辫颈,[65] Hare, i.e. 艢补艣补 is also mentioned in the 峁欢惫别诲补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻.[66]
Besides these, reptiles, aquatic creatures, insects of certain species and birds were included in the 峁欢惫别诲补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻.[67] Reptiles and creatures cover an important portion of nature.
The 峁欢惫别诲补蝉补峁僪颈迟腻 mentions some birds which are found in the SaptaSindhu region,viz. Mayura or Peacock,[68] and 惭补测奴谤墨 or Peahen,[69] 搁辞辫补苍腻办腻,[70] Jay or wood peaker, Kikidivi[71] or Blue Jay,[72] 碍峁颈峁卥腻[73] or Kite,[74] 痴补谤迟颈办腻,[75] or Quail,[76] 碍补辫颈帽箩补濒补,[77] 艢耻办补[78] or parrot, Kapota,[79] Dove.[80]
Footnotes and references:
[1]:
cf., Dasgupta, S.N., Religion and the Rational Outlook, p. 45
[7]:
测耻惫补峁� tamindr膩parvat膩 puroyudh膩 yo na岣� | p峁泃补苍测腻dapa ta峁僼amiddhata峁� vajre峁嘺 ta峁僼amiddhatam || Ibid.,1.132.6
[8]:
tanno鈥檋irbudhnyo adbhirarkaistatparvatastatsavit膩 cano dh膩t | tado峁dh墨bhirapi r膩ti峁Ｄ乧o 产丑补驳补岣� pura峁僤hirjinvatu pra r膩ye || Ibid., 6.49.14
[9]:
cf.,Griffith, R.T.H., The Hymns of the 峁欢惫别诲补, on 1.122.3
[10]:
辫补谤惫补迟补岣� parvav膩n v峁涐梗峁瓂膩dip奴ra峁嘺v膩n 辫补谤箩补苍测补岣� | S膩ya峁嚹乧膩rya鈥檚 com. on 峁欢惫别诲补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, 1.122.3
[11]:
峁欢惫别诲补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, 1.164.20, 22; 2.14.2; 4.20.5;5.78.6
[12]:
Ibid., 10.97
[13]:
v墨rutsu o峁dh墨峁 mahitv膩鈥︹��. | S膩ya峁嚹乧膩rya鈥檚 com. on Ibid., 1.67.9
[14]:
y膩岣� 辫丑补濒颈苍墨ry膩 补辫丑补濒腻 apu峁膩 y膩艣ca pu峁i峁嚹弗 | b峁沨aspatipras奴t膩st膩 no mu帽cantva峁僪asa岣� || Ibid.,10.97.15
[15]:
Ibid.
[16]:
Ibid.
[17]:
Ibid.
[18]:
[19]:
vratateriva yath膩 vally膩岣� gu峁ita峁� nirgat膩峁� 艣腻办丑腻峁� v峁浥沜ati tath膩鈥︹� S膩ya峁嚹乧膩rya鈥檚 com. on Ibid.,8.40.6
[20]:
Vide, Dvivedi, K.N., 峁歡vaidik Bhugol, p.60
[21]:
峁欢惫别诲补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, 1.8.8; 3.45.4,;4.20.5,;10.146.5
[22]:
Ibid., 1.67.5
[23]:
S膩ya峁嚹乧膩rya鈥檚 com. on Ibid., 1.90.6
[24]:
峁欢惫别诲补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, 10.97.2; 6,8,11
[25]:
Ibid., 10.97
[27]:
峁欢惫别诲补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, 1.93.6; 3.48.2; 5.36.2; 5.43.4; 9.46.1; 9.62.4
[28]:
Ibid., 10.142.8
[29]:
Ibid., 7.33.11; 6.16.13; 10.184.2
[30]:
Ibid., 4.58.5
[31]:
Atharvaveda 厂补峁僪颈迟补, 10.7.41;痴腻箩补蝉补苍别测墨 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, 17.6
[32]:
峁欢惫别诲补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, 1.23.15; 1.135.8; 2.5.6; 2.14.11; 5.85.3; 10.69.3
[33]:
Ibid., 5.53.13
[34]:
S膩ya峁嚹乧膩rya鈥檚 com. on Ibid., 1.16.2
[35]:
峁欢惫别诲补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, 8.91.2
[36]:
驳谤腻尘测腻岣� 驳补惫腻艣惫腻诲补测补岣モ�︹�� | S膩ya峁嚹乧膩rya鈥檚 com. on Ibid., 10.90.8
[37]:
s奴yava艣adbhagavat墨 hi bh奴y膩 atho 惫补测补峁� bhagavanta岣� sy膩 ma | addhi t峁涐箛amaghnye vi艣vad膩m墨峁� piba 艣udhamudakam膩 carant墨 || Ibid., 1.164.40, also Ibid.,
[38]:
.1.6; 5.83.8; 8.69.2
[39]:
[40]:
Ibid., 5.61.11; 8.5.7, 8
[41]:
Ibid., 2.27.16
[42]:
Ibid., 6.46.13; 9.97.54
[43]:
Ibid., 8.74.14
[44]:
Ibid., 2.34.3
[45]:
Ibid., 8.46
[46]:
Ibid., 1.138.2; 8.5.37; 8.46.22, 31
[47]:
Ibid., 4.22.2
[48]:
Ibid., 1.138.4; 8.18.17; 8.70.15
[49]:
Ibid., 3.2.11
[50]:
Ibid., 8.35.7, 9; 9.87.7
[51]:
Ibid., 2.39.4
[52]:
Ibid., 4.4.1; 8.33.8; 10.40.4
[53]:
Ibid., 1.64.8; 1.95.5; 3.2.11; 4.16.14
[54]:
Ibid., 1.154.2
[55]:
[56]:
峁欢惫别诲补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, 1.64.7
[57]:
Ibid., 4.16.14
[58]:
Ibid., 1.61.7; 9.97.7; 10.28.4
[59]:
Ibid., 7.55.4
[60]:
Ibid., 1.42.2; 1.105.7; 1.116.14; 6.51.14;7.38.7; 10.39.13
[61]:
Ibid., 10.28.4
[63]:
峁欢惫别诲补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, 1.39.6
[64]:
Ibid., 1.39.6; 1.85.4
[65]:
Vide, Griffith, R.T.H., The Hymns of the 峁欢惫别诲补 on 10.86.5, p.596
[66]:
峁欢惫别诲补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, 10.28.9
[67]:
[68]:
峁欢惫别诲补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, 3.45.1; 8.1.25
[69]:
Ibid., 1.191.14
[70]:
Ibid., 1.50.12
[71]:
Ibid., 10.97.13
[72]:
Ibid., also vide, Wilson, H.H., 峁欢惫别诲补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, vol.6, on 10.97.13, p.346
[73]:
峁欢惫别诲补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, 10.87.7
[74]:
Vide, Griffith, R.T.H., The Hymns of the 峁欢惫别诲补, on 10.87.7, p.598
[75]:
峁欢惫别诲补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, 1.117.16
[76]:
Vide, Wilson, H.H., 峁欢惫别诲补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, vol. 1, on 1.117.16, p.385
[77]:
峁欢惫别诲补 厂补峁僪颈迟腻, 2.43.1
[78]:
Ibid., 1.50.12
[79]:
Ibid., 1.30.4, 10,165.1
[80]:
Vide, Griffith, R.T.H., The Hymns of the 峁欢惫别诲补, on 1.165.1, p.645