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The Ayurveda (science of life), also called the Vaidyakasastra (science of medicine and surgery) and styled as Tantras and Kalpas forms a part (upanga) of the Atharvaveda. Vedas show knowledge of Anatomy and embryology on which the medical art is based. The Ayurveda deals with eight principal topics, viz., major surgery, minor surgery, healing of diseases, demonology, child diseases, toxicology, elixirs, and aprodisiacs. The Vinaya Pitaka and other Buddhist texts also show a wide knowledge of 'elementary medicine, surgical instruments, the use of hot baths and so forth." The sage Atreya is declared to have been the founder of the science. Compilations made by later writers are ascribed to this and other sages including Kasyapa, Harita, Agnivesa, Bheda, and Bharadvaja. Buddhist tradition talks of Jivaka who studied under Atreya and was an expert on child diseases. Chanakya is also credited with writing on medicine after his graduation from Taxila University. The extant texts of early dates are, however, not numerous, The oldest Samhita is ascribed to Charaka

who, according to tradition, was the physician of king Kanishka (third century), whose wife he helped in a critical case. This text is based upon a number of Tantras on special topics written by Agnivela, a pupil of Punarvasu Atreya and fellow student of Bheda. Charaka's compilation was revised by a Kashmirian Briddhabala (8 th or 9 th century) having added the last two chapters and written 17 out of 30 chapters of book VI. At an early date it was rendered into Persian and in 800 it was translated into Arabic. Written in prose interspersed with verses it is complete in eight sections (angas). The first, Sutrasthana, deals with remedies, diets and duties of a doctor. The second, Nidanasthana, is concerned with the eight chief diseases. The third. Vimanasthana, deals with general pathology and medical studies. It also contains regulations for the conduct of the new student who is to devote all his energies to the work, never to harm patients in any way. The fourth section, Sarirasthana, deals with anatomy and enibryology The fifth discusses diagnosis and prognosis. The sixth, Dharmasthana, deals with special theology; the seventh, Kalpasthana, and the eight, Siddhisthana, with general therapy (cure and treatment of diseases). The equally famous author, Susruta, son of Visvamitra as stated in the Mahabharata, and contemporary of Atreya and Harita as mentioned in the Bower Manuscript, was renowned beyond India, in Cambodia in the east and in Arabia in the west in the ninth century. Susruta's Samhita was commented by Jaiyyata, Gayadasa, and Chakrapanidatta supplemented by Dallana in the 13 th century. It was revised on the basis of Jaiyyata's commentary by Chandrata. The Susruta's Samhita also begins with a Sutrasthana which deals with general questions and incidentally mentions his teacher Divodasa, an incarnation of Dhanvantari, physician of the gods. The second part, Nidanasthana, deals with pathology. The third, Sarirasthana, covers anatomy and embryology. fourth. Chikitsasthana, deals with therapeutics (treatment of diseases). The The fifth, Kalpasthana, discusses toxicology. The remaining three sections are included in the Uttaratantra, a later addition, which supplements the work. The Bhela Samhita contains the same divisions as the Charaka Samhita. It is not well preserved. The

extant portion is mainly in verses with a limited amount of prose. The manuscript discovered in 1890 at Kashgar, known as the Bower Manuscript (4 th century) written in popular Sanskrit affected by Prakrit and dialect of Buddhist Sanskrit, cites Atreya, Kshorapam, Jatukarna, Parisara, Bheda, Harita, Charaka, and indirectly Susruta Samhita. The portion devoted to medical science is divided into sixteen sections which give information regarding powders, decoction, oils, elixirs, aphrodisiacs and other recipes including a treatise on child diseases In the first of its seven treatises one tract deals with garlic (lasuna) and its valuable qualities for prolonging life, a second gives also a recipe for an elixir to secure a thousand years of life, and discusses eye-washes and eye-solves with many other topics. Another text (iii) gives fourteen recipes for external and internal application, while great importance attaches to the navanitaka cream). The Ashtanga-Sangraha is ascribed to Vriddha (elder) Vagbhata, son of Sinhagupta and pupil of the Buddhist Avalokita. The Ashtanga-hridaya-Samhita is ascribed to the yonger Vagbhata, probably a descendant of the older The latter work, a century later, was translated into Tibetan. Both works cite Charaka and Susruta including the Uttaratantra. The Rogavinischaya of Madhavakara (Sth or 9 th century) is an important treatise on pathology. The Siddhiyoga of Vriddha-madhava or Vrinda follows in its order of diseases that of the Rogavinischaya, and provides prescriptions for curing a large number of ailments from fever to poisoning. On this work is based the Chikitsi-sarasammgraha (about 1060) of Chakrapanidatta, which is an important treatise on therapeutics. In 1224 Milhana wrote at Delhi the Chikitsamita in 2500 verses. To a Nagarjuna are ascribed a Yogasara and Yoga ataka. The Samhita of Sarangadhara was commented on by Vapadeva, son of the physician Kesava and protege of Hemadeva (about 300), who also wrote a Sataloki on powders, pills, etc. Sarangadhara provides for the use of opium and quicksilver, and the use of the pulse in diagnosis. The later works, numerous and expansive, include Tishata's Chikitsakalika (14 th century), Bhava-Misra's Bhavaprakasa (16 th century) and Lombikaraja's Vaidyajivana (17 th century). There are also numerous monographs on different kinds

of diseases including Surapila's Vrikshayurveda on plant diseases. There are numerous works dealing with the diseases of the domestic animals also. The Hastyayurveda on elephant diseases is of uncertain date. The Matangalila of Narayana recognises Palakapya as the father of this science. The A-vasastra dealing with horse-diseases is ascribed to the sage Salihotra and is known also as Asvachikitsa, and Aiva-vaidyaka, and Asvayurveda. The extant works of uncertain dates include Asvayurveda of Gana, the Asya-vaidyaki of Jayadatta and Dimpankara, the Yogamanjari of Vardhamana and the Asva-chikitsa of Nakula; the Salihotra of Bhoja treats in 138 verses of the care of horses and their diseases. The extensiveness and importance of the medical science gave rise to medical dictionaries also. The extant works include the Dhanvantari Nighantu which is dated after Amarakosa, the Sabdapradipa written for Bhima pala of Bengal by Suresvara in 1075, the Rajanighantu of Narahari is dated 1250 and the Madanavinodanighantu of Madanapila written in 1874 is "a comprehensive dictionary of materia medica". the The works on terms of dietics and cookery "include Pathyapathya-nighantu. There are numerous smaller works which discuss the qualities of things (dravyaguna) and form preliminary study for medical students. One of these is known as the Dravy-gunadarpana which discusses the food value of several things. Haritaki (Harrah) for instance is stated to be 'as beneficial as the mother, but while mother resents at times, the haritaki once in the stomach (udarastha) never does any harm.' In the field of medicine and of surgery the Hindu achievements equalled if not surpassed the Grecian attainments, which in certain respects are quite modern. "Greece, of course, borrowed from India the use of several medicinal plants" clearly showing Indian influence on Greek medicine. The origin of disease is traced to the derangement of three humours, riz. wind (vayu), bile (pitta, and phlegm (kapha) not only in all medical sciences but also in the Atharvaveda, and the Kausikasutra and is indicated by the Simkhya system of three gunas (sattva, rajas, and tamas). The influence of seasons on health was also recognized. The three

stages of fever and other disorders, the division of means of healing into hot asd cold, or dry and oily; the healing of diseases by remedies of opposing character; the rules of etiquette and professional conduct exacted from doctors anticipated the modern develop. ment and imply a high standard of technical and moral achievement. Quotidian, testian and quastan fevers are distinguished and consumption is prominently dealt with. The knowledge in regard to embryology is quite modern. "The doctrine of the simultaneous development of the members is held, the connexion of the male sex with the right side is noted, and a like cause is given for the production of twins; the viability or capability of living of an eight-month foetus is asserted; that of a seventh month is denied." The method of removal of a dead foetus is explained. one. The achievement in surgery also was not a mean Both Charaka and Susruta give evidence of the knowledge of anatomy while mentioning the number of small bones and single bone. Dissection of human body is probably indicated thereby. Susruta has two chapters on surgical instruments and one on mode of operation. There was operation for stone. Haemorrhoids were properly dealt with. Blood-letting by use of leeches was practised. The use of the left hand to deal with the right eye in ophthalmology was known. The high standard demanded from a doctor in the Susruta-Samhiti is a clear evidence of Indian Culture in the field of medical treatment which concerned every members of the society. The admission of the medical student is based on the formal initiation of a youth as a member of the twice-born. "He is to keep purity of body and life. He is to treat, as if they were his kith and kin, holy men, friends, neighbours, the widow and the orphan, the poor and travellers". But it appears that bad people like hunters, bird-catchers, sinners and outcastes did not receive the same treatment. But Charaka emphasises that a medical student should "help patients even if his own life is at stake. He is never to entertain evil thoughts thoughts regarding the wife and goods of his patients; he is to devote himself in word, thought and deed to the healing of his charge, not to report outside the affairs of the house, and to be careful to say nothing to a patient likely to retard recovery".