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The topic or subject-matter of 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补 is known as 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补pada. According to Manu, pada means 蝉迟丑腻苍补.^[1] 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补 states that if a person, oppressed by one or more persons in a manner, transgressing the law of 厂尘峁泃颈蝉 and established usages, applies or complains to the king (or any officer in charge of the administration of justice), then it forms the 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补pada.⁸⁸ Vij帽膩ne艣vara explains the word pada as 惫颈峁�a测补, meaning subject-matter.^[2] 础辫补谤腻谤办补, commenting on it says, 辫补诲补峁� 蝉迟丑腻苍补峁� nimittamiti y膩vat.^[3]

This definition shows three elements necessary to constitute a 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补pada, i.e.

1. the breach of a rule prescribed by the 厂尘峁泃颈蝉 or by a customary rule,
2. injuring forcibly or illegally someone from violation of that rule
3. and finally the complaint of the victim.

From this definition, given by 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补, it appears that 惫测补惫补丑腻谤辫补诲补 indicates and includes those disputes, which are started or brought before the court at the instances of the parties.^[4] The word 惫颈惫腻诲补辫补诲补 is used by some writers like 碍补耻峁璱濒测补, 狈腻谤补诲补, etc., instead of 惫测补惫补丑腻谤辫补诲补.^[5] Sometimes, 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补 seems to have distinguished between 惫颈惫腻诲补 and 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补. 痴颈惫腻诲补 is used in the sense of lawsuit or case, whereas 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补 is used to denote judicial procedure.^[6] Therefore, 惫测补惫补丑腻谤辫补诲补 indicates the process of defining and classifying disputes or offences under different heads, which are known as titles of law.

For convenience, the disputes have been classified under eighteen heads or titles generally called 惫测补惫补丑腻谤辫补诲补 or 惫颈惫腻诲补辫补诲补. It signifies various kinds of disputes existed among people in those days. The formal enumeration of eighteen 惫颈惫腻诲补辫补诲补s are found in the 惭补苍耻蝉尘峁泃颈.

Manu has recognized the eighteen 惫颈惫腻诲补辫补诲补s in the following manner^[7] :-

1. 峁涐箛腻诲腻苍补 (non-payment of debts),
2. 苍颈办峁�e辫补 (deposit and pledge),
3. 补蝉惫腻尘颈惫颈办谤补测补 (sale without ownership),
4. 蝉补尘产丑奴测补-蝉补尘耻迟迟丑腻苍补 (concerns among partners or partnership),
5. 诲补迟迟补蝉测腻苍补辫补办补谤尘补 (resumption of gifts),
6. 惫别迟补苍腻诲腻苍补 (non-payment of wages),
7. 蝉补峁僾颈诲惫测补迟颈办谤补尘补 (non-performance of agreement or conventions),
8. 办谤补测补惫颈办谤补测腻苍耻艣补测补 (recession of sale and purchase),
9. sv膩mip膩la惫颈惫腻诲补 (disputes between the owner (of cattle) and herdsman),
10. s墨m膩惫颈惫腻诲补 (disputes regarding boundaries),
11. 诲补峁囜笉补辫腻谤耻峁�y补 (assault and violence),
12. 惫腻办辫腻谤耻峁�y补 (use of abusive words and defamation,
13. steya (theft),
14. 蝉腻丑补蝉补 (robbery and violence),
15. 蝉迟谤墨蝉补峁僩谤补丑补峁嘺 (adultery),
16. 蝉迟谤墨辫耻峁僤丑补谤尘补 (duties of man and wife),
17. 惫颈产丑腻驳补 (partition) and
18. 诲测奴迟补蝉补尘腻丑惫补测补 (gambling and betting).

驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补, in the 痴测补惫补丑腻谤腻诲丑测腻测补 of his work, has not provided any separate list of 惫测补惫补丑腻谤辫补诲补s like that of the 惭补苍耻蝉尘峁泃颈. Rather he has treated eah title distinctly with heading as one 辫谤补办补谤补峁嘺.

Thus, 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补鈥檚 enumeration of 惫测补惫补丑腻谤辫补诲补s are found as follows:-

1. 峁涐箛腻诲腻苍补 (non-payment of debts),
2. upanidhi (laws relating to deposits),
3. d膩ya惫颈产丑腻驳补 (divisions of property among heirs),
4. s墨m膩惫颈惫腻诲补 (disputes regarding boundaries),
5. sv膩m墨p膩la惫颈惫腻诲补 (disputes between the owner (of cattle) and their herdsmen),
6. 补蝉惫腻尘颈惫颈办谤补测补 (sale without ownership),
7. 诲补迟迟腻辫谤补诲腻苍颈办补 (laws relating to gift and its acceptance),
8. 办谤墨迟腻苍耻艣补测补 (rescission of purchase),
9. 补产丑测耻辫别迟测腻艣耻艣谤奴峁Ｄ� (laws relating to breach of contract of service),
10. 蝉补峁僾颈诲-惫测补迟颈办谤补尘补 (breach of established usage),
11. 惫别迟补苍腻诲腻苍补 (non-payment of wages),
12. 诲测奴迟补蝉补尘腻丑惫补测补 (gambling and betting),
13. 惫腻办辫腻谤耻峁�y补 (use of abusive words and defamation)
14. 诲补峁囜笉补辫腻谤耻峁�y补 (assault and violence)
15. 蝉腻丑补蝉补 (robbery and violence)
16. 惫颈办谤墨测腻蝉补峁僷谤补诲腻苍补 (non-delivery after sale),
17. 蝉补尘产丑奴测补-蝉补尘耻迟迟丑腻苍补 (trading by partnership),
18. steya (theft),
19. 蝉迟谤墨蝉补峁僩谤补丑补峁嘺 (adultery) and
20. 辫谤补办墨谤峁嘺办补 (miscellaneous rules).

驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补 in the 痴测补惫补丑腻谤腻诲丑测腻测补 has not followed the eighteen divisions of 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补 as given by Manu. It is necessary to take a glance at the divergence, as to the order, number and nomenclature of the 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补padas found in 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补 with that of in Manu and 狈腻谤补诲补. It would throw light on 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补鈥檚 thinking and his maturity in treating the titles of law or 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补.

The difference of the 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补padas in Manu, 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补 and 狈腻谤补诲补^[8] is shown below:-

惭补苍耻蝉尘峁泃颈 1. 峁涐箛腻诲腻苍补, 2. 苍颈办峁�e辫补, 3. 补蝉惫腻尘颈惫颈办谤补测补, 4. 蝉补尘产丑奴测补-蝉补尘耻迟迟丑腻苍补, 5. 诲补迟迟补蝉测腻苍补辫补办补谤尘补, 6. 惫别迟补苍腻诲腻苍补, 7. 蝉补峁僾颈诲惫测补迟颈办谤补尘补, 8. 办谤补测补惫颈办谤补测腻苍耻艣补测补, 9. sv膩mip膩la惫颈惫腻诲补, 10. s墨m膩惫颈惫腻诲补, 11. 诲补峁囜笉补辫腻谤耻峁�y补, 12. 惫腻办辫腻谤耻峁�y补, 13. steya, 14. 蝉腻丑补蝉补, 15. 蝉迟谤墨蝉补峁僩谤补丑补峁嘺, 16. 蝉迟谤墨辫耻峁僤丑补谤尘补, 17. 惫颈产丑腻驳补, 18. 诲测奴迟补蝉补尘腻丑惫补测补.

驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补sm峁泃i 1. 峁涐箛腻诲腻苍补, 2. upanidhi, 3. d膩ya惫颈产丑腻驳补, 4. s墨m膩惫颈惫腻诲补, 5. sv膩m墨p膩la惫颈惫腻诲补, 6. 补蝉惫腻尘颈惫颈办谤补测补, 7. 诲补迟迟腻辫谤补诲腻苍颈办补, 8. 办谤墨迟腻苍耻艣补测补, 9. 补产丑测耻辫别迟测腻艣耻艣谤奴峁Ｄ�, 10. 蝉补峁僾颈诲-vyatikrama, 11. 惫别迟补苍腻诲腻苍补, 12. 诲测奴迟补蝉补尘腻丑惫补测补, 13. 惫腻办辫腻谤耻峁�y补, 14. 诲补峁囜笉补辫腻谤耻峁�y补, 15. 蝉腻丑补蝉补, 16. 惫颈办谤墨测腻蝉补峁僷谤补诲腻苍补, 17. 蝉补尘产丑奴测补蝉补尘耻迟迟丑腻苍补, 18. steya, 19. 蝉迟谤墨蝉补峁僩谤补丑补峁嘺, 20. 辫谤补办墨谤峁嘺办补.

狈腻谤补诲补sm峁泃i 1. 峁涐箛腻诲腻苍补, 2. 苍颈办峁�e辫补/ upanidhi, 3. 蝉补尘产丑奴测补-蝉补尘耻迟迟丑腻苍补, 4. 诲补迟迟腻辫谤补诲腻苍颈办补, 5. 补产丑测耻辫别迟测腻艣耻艣谤奴峁Ｄ�, 6. 惫别迟补苍补蝉测腻苍补辫腻办补谤尘补, 7. 补蝉惫腻尘颈惫颈办谤补测补, 8. 惫颈办谤墨测腻蝉补峁僷谤补诲腻苍补, 9. 办谤墨迟腻苍耻艣补测补, 10. 蝉补尘补测补蝉测腻苍补辫补办补谤尘补, 11. s墨m膩惫颈惫腻诲补, 12. 蝉迟谤墨辫耻峁僺补测辞驳补, 13. 诲腻测补产丑腻驳补, 14. 蝉腻丑补蝉补, 15. 惫腻办辫腻谤耻峁�y补, 16. 诲补峁囜笉补辫腻谤耻峁�y补, 17. 诲测奴迟补蝉补尘腻丑惫补测补, 18. 辫谤补办墨谤峁嘺办补.

From the arrangement of the 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补padas in Manu, 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补 and 狈腻谤补诲补 which is mentioned above, it can be observed that the number of 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补padas is highest in the 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补sm峁泃i. In the 痴测补惫补丑腻谤腻诲丑测腻测补 of the 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补sm峁泃i, the duties of husband and wife (蝉迟谤墨辫耻峁僤丑补谤尘补) are not included which is described as one of the 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补padas in the 惭补苍耻蝉尘峁泃颈 and in the 狈腻谤补诲补sm峁泃i. 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补 might have considered it as a subject not falling within the proper domain of 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补 or law. Therefore, the same is described under the section named as the 腻肠腻谤腻诲丑测腻测补.^[9]

驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补 has introduced two more topics viz. (1) 补产丑测耻辫别迟测腻艣耻艣谤奴峁Ｄ� and (2) 辫谤补办墨谤峁嘺办补, thereby deviating from the eighteenfold division of 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补padas as given by Manu. Moreover, the topic 办谤补测补惫颈办谤补测腻苍耻艣补测补 is divided into two, thus raising the 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补padas, in all, twenty. 狈腻谤补诲补 also follows the changes introduced by 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补. He has added the two topics and split one topic into two like 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补. Sv膩m墨p膩la惫颈惫腻诲补 has been separately discussed in Manu and 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补, but 狈腻谤补诲补 deals it as a part of s墨m膩惫颈惫腻诲补. 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补 has treated adultery or 蝉迟谤墨蝉补峁僩谤补丑补峁嘺 as an independent topic, while 狈腻谤补诲补 discusses it under the title 蝉迟谤墨辫耻峁僺补测辞驳补. Both Manu and 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补 have treated 惫腻办辫腻谤耻峁�y补 and 诲补峁囜笉补辫腻谤耻峁�y补 as individual title of laws, while 狈腻谤补诲补 describes both in one chapter. 狈腻谤补诲补 includes steya under 蝉腻丑补蝉补 and in the appendix. These are the main characteristics of 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补padas in Manu, 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补 and 狈腻谤补诲补, which help to show the contribution and advancement of 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补 towards the branches or divisions of law that regulated the rights and liabilities of parties in a legal proceeding.

The 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补sm峁泃i does not provide or make a clear division of 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补padas into civil and criminal laws. However, an indication of the distinction between civil and criminal disputes seems to have appeared among the 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补padas of the 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补sm峁泃i when the author speaks of artha惫颈惫腻诲补.^[10] In later stages, the 厂尘峁泃颈 writers have developed the distinction among the eighteen 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补padas into two groups. 叠峁沨补蝉辫补迟颈, as quoted in the 厂尘峁泃颈candrik膩, states that there are two kinds of 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补, those arising out of wealth and those arising out of injury. Fourteen of them have the origin in wealth and four in injury or violence.^[11]

It is to be mentioned here that these classifications of 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补padas should not be considered as exhaustive. Manu suggests this fact after giving the names of eighteen 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补padas. He says, 鈥淒epending on the eternal law, let him (king) decide the disputes of men which mostly (产丑奴测颈峁ａ弓丑补峁�) contend on the titles just mentioned.鈥�^[12] Commentators like 惭别诲丑腻迟颈迟丑颈, Kull奴ka, etc., have made this point clear that the word 鈥榤ost鈥� i.e. 产丑奴测颈峁ａ弓丑补峁� used by Manu indicates that there can be more 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补padas than eighteen. These 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补padas do not include all disputes but only the largest and most important among them.^[13] These classifications of 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补padas and their rules seem to have been derived directly from actual life and is in agreement with the necessities of the life of those days.^[14]

Thus, it can be that the 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补padas enumerated by 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补 in the 痴测补惫补丑腻谤腻诲丑测腻测补 is having some difference from the traditional number of eighteen 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补padas as mentioned by Manu, and perhaps the reason is that it embraced most of the disputes, which arose among people during those periods.

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

e峁�u sth膩ne峁�u 产丑奴测颈峁ａ弓丑补峁� 惫颈惫腻诲补峁� carat膩峁� n峁涐箛膩m// dharma 艣膩艣vatam膩艣ritya kury膩tk膩ryavinir峁嚹亂am// 惭补苍耻蝉尘峁泃颈,8.8⁸⁸ sm峁泃y膩c膩ravyapetena m膩rge峁嚹乨har峁�ita岣� 辫补谤补颈岣�/ 膩vedayati cedr膩j帽e 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补辫补诲补峁� hi tat// 驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补sm峁泃i, 2.5

[2]:

惭颈迟腻办峁�a谤腻,Ibid., 2.5

[3]:

础辫补谤腻谤办补, Ibid., 2.5

[4]:

Kane, P.V., Op.cit., Volume 3, page250

[5]:

础谤迟丑补艣腻蝉迟谤补,3.16.72-73; 狈腻谤补诲补sm峁泃i, 4.4.1, 4.5. 1

[6]:

驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补sm峁泃i,2.8, 305

[7]:

te峁Ｄ乵膩dyam峁涐箛腻诲腻苍补峁� nik峁�epo鈥檚v膩mivikraya岣�/ sambh奴ya ca samutth膩na峁� 诲补迟迟补蝉测腻苍补辫补办补谤尘补ca// vetanasyaiva c膩d膩na峁� 蝉补峁僾颈诲a艣ca vyatikrama岣�/ krayavikray膩nu艣ayo 惫颈惫腻诲补岣� sv膩mip膩layo岣�// s墨m膩惫颈惫腻诲补dharma艣ca p膩ru峁�ye da峁囜笉av膩cike/ 蝉迟别测补峁� ca 蝉腻丑补蝉补峁� caiva 蝉迟谤墨蝉补峁僩谤补丑补峁嘺meva ca// str墨pu峁僤harmo 惫颈产丑腻驳补艣ca dy奴tam膩hvaya eva ca/ pad膩nya峁ａ弓膩da艣ait膩ni 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补sthit膩viha// 惭补苍耻蝉尘峁泃颈, 8.4-7

[8]:

狈腻谤补诲补sm峁泃i, 1.16-19

[9]:

驰腻箩帽补惫补濒办测补sm峁泃i,1.51-89

[10]:

sarve峁�varthaviv膩de峁�u balavatuttar膩 办谤颈测腻/ Ibid.,2.23

[11]:

厂尘峁泃颈candrik膩, 痴测补惫补丑腻谤补办腻峁囜笉补 1, page20

[12]:

e峁�u sth膩ne峁�u 产丑奴测颈峁ａ弓丑补峁� 惫颈惫腻诲补峁� carat膩峁� n峁涐箛膩m/ 诲丑补谤尘补峁� 艣膩艣vatam膩艣ritya kury膩tk膩ryavinir峁嘺yam// 惭补苍耻蝉尘峁泃颈,8.8

[13]:

bh奴yi峁ａ弓hagraha峁嘺峁� pr膩dh膩nyakhy膩pan膩rtham/ anye鈥檖i 惫测补惫补丑腻谤补hetava岣� santi/ 惭别诲丑腻迟颈迟丑颈 on 惭补苍耻蝉尘峁泃颈, 8.8

[14]:

Jolly,J., Hindu Law and Custom, page35