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Vaishnavism is one of the major traditions of present day Hinduism and is practiced by majority of north Indians in present times. This tradition advocates supremacy of god Visnu which according to Hindu belief system is preserver of the universe.^[1] There are various forms of Vaishnavism among them Bhagavata form of Vaisnavism is the earliest, which advocates worship of Visnu in the form of Narayana and VasudevaKrsna. This is attested by several epigraphic records and the best example in this regard is second or first century B.C. epigraph found on Besnagar Pillar. This epigraph belongs to the Sunga period and informs us about the construction of the Garuda-pillar by Heliodorus (Greek ambassador of Indo-Greek ruler Antialkidas to the fifth Sunga king Bhadraka or the ninth Bhagavata) in honor of Vasudeva. The most striking part of this inscription is that Heliodorus refers himself as a Bhagavata.^[2]  

Another form of Vaishnavism is Pancaratra which promotes Yogaascetic binary if not a tantric tradition. It also tends to subordinate Vedic ritualism with its method of renunciation if not non-Vedic. Narayana Parvan talks about Pancaratra鈥檚 two essential concepts. The first is four Vayuhas -Vasudeva-Krsna, Samkarsana, Pradyumna and Aniruddha and the second is Panch-kala or five observances in a day like Abhigamana (approaching god), Upadana (material worship), Ijya (sacrifice in worship), Svadhyaya (textual study) and Yoga (meditation).^[3]  

Another form of Vaishnavism is that of Vedic-Puranic which advocates the worship of Visnu in his various Avatars. There were some other traditions of Vaisnavism that emerged in early medieval times and have a specific spatial identity. The best example in this regard is Tamil Alvars, which is a group of twelve saintpoets who advocated bhakti or complete devotion towards Visnu through their poems dubbed under Nalayira Divya Prabandham, in the tenth century.^[4]

Apart from Naga, Buddhism and Saivism, Vaishnavism was one of the popular religious traditions in the religious landscape of Kashmir. Some Scholars have suggested that Vaishnavism was practiced by people of Kashmir since earlier times. But this suggestion lacks both literary and archaeological support.^[5] If Kalhana is to be believed, Kashmiris were not familiar with Vaishnavism before Pravarasena II鈥檚 reign (6^th century A.D). About this king he informs us that when king was about to make holy linga of Siva Pravaresvara, the (image of Visnu) Jayasvamin seated itself on the base (Pitha) after flouting the sacred diagram (Yantra).^[6]

Like mainland India, different forms of Vaisnavism were also found in Kashmir. During ancient times Kashmir has been the crib of Pancaratra literature dealing with Visnu and his four Vayuhas.^[7] Besides Pancaratra, Vedic-Puranic form was widely prevalent, which worshipped in various Avatars like Narsimha, Krsna, Hamsa, Trivikrama, Rama, Matsya, Kurma, Varaha, Buddha, Kalki, Parasurma. The description of these Avatars except Kalki and Parasurma are found in Nilamatapurana and rest of two are given in the eleventh century A.D. text Dasavataracarita. The main source which talks comprehensively about Vedic-Puranic Vaishnavism in Kashmir is Nilamatapurana. Concerning the appearance of Visnu, Nilamatapurana depicts him as a god having four faces, four arms, lotus resembling eyes, blue-lotus or white-snow type complexion, wearing a diadem of jewel, ear-rings and yellow or white dress.^[8] In Nilamatapurana, Visnu is given the highest pedestal and almost five hundred eighty Slokas from 1069-1648 are dedicated in his worship.

State of Vaishnavism in Pre-Ninth Century A.D.: 

Vaishnavism was prevalent in Kashmir since sixth century A.D. and was patronized by different rulers. Kalhana informs us that the king Pravarasena II consecrated the image of Jayasvamin (Visnu). He also worshipped the image of Bhimasvamin (Visnu).^[9] Yudhisthira II's son Narendraditya also called Lahkana built a temple for Visnu namely Narendrasvamin.^[10] Ranaditya consecrated the Visnu image called Ranasvamin. The king鈥� wife built the temple of Ranarambhasvamin. He built another Visnu temple called Ranapurasvamin in the village of Simharotsika.^[11] But it was only in seventh century A.D. or when Karkota rulers took over Kashmir politically that it replaced Saivism as dominant tradition. During Durlabhavardhana鈥檚 reign we see two Visnu temples namely Durlabhasvamin and Malhanasvamin were constructed. Chandrapida built Gambhirasvamin and Tribhunasvamin temples. During Lalitaditya鈥檚 reign we see the king of Lata built Kayyasvamin and King Jayapida built Vipulakesava temple . Archaeological evidences do substantiate the above narrative. For example the prominence of Vaisnavism from seventh century A.D.is known by various iconographic evidences like Vaikuntha Visnu, chlorite green headless standing Visnu, Brass four-headed standing Visnu, collected from various sites and private collections.^[12]

Footnotes and references:

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[1]:

For comprehensive details see Suvira Jaiswal, The Origin and Development of Vaisnavism: From 200 Bc to Ad 500 (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 2015).

[2]:

Singh, A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India, 372.

[3]:

Flood, Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, 235.

[4]:

Flood, Blackwell Companion to Hinduism, 237.

[5]:

Ray, Early History and Culture of Kashmir, 174.

[6]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini, Taranga 3, verse 350.

[7]:

Nilamatapurana, vol.1, 158.

[8]:

Nilamatapurana, vol.1, 141-142.

[9]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini, Taranga 3, verse 350-352.

[10]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini, Taranga 3,383.

[11]:

Kalhana, Rajatarangini, Taranga 3,460-62.

[12]:

See J.L Bhan, Kashmir Sculptures (New Delhi: Readworthy, 2019).