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Religion, Tradition, and Ideology: Pre-colonial South India

鈥淩eligion, Tradition, and Ideology: Pre-colonial South India鈥� is written by a historian Radha Champakalakshmi. This work is very important or path showing for those who are interested in doing history of religion and religious traditions. The present thesis has taken a lot of guidance from the work to historicize it on the similar pattern. The author offers a methodological approach to a history researcher who endeavours to historicize any religious tradition and inform us that one should take into consideration various chronological periods and contexts to investigate the origin, development of any religious tradition with the focus to further investigate how that tradition was able to respond the historical situations. This work then tries to do a history of various religious traditions in south India on a similar approach. The work rests on nineteen essays on various aspects of religion in south India ranging from religious literature, sects, and architecture. In this book, she has highlighted the process on interaction, confrontation and accommodation of Brahmanical and non Brahmanical religious traditions in south India and how local cults were absorbed into Brahmanical fold by invoking the Puranic narratives and how subsequently was given them the pan-India identity. This work also talks about the advent of Brahmanical sects, caste system, Brahmanical institutions into south India. It also talks about other religious traditions like Jainism, Buddhism etc. The book also shows up the patronage of political elite to diverse religious traditions for gaining popular support towards their rule.

Religious Change in Kashmir

鈥淩eligious Change in Kashmir鈥� is actually a keynote lecture delivered by Alexis Sanderson, an English indologist, at Kyoto University and the same is published now available on the academia account of the author. At the very outset Sanderson discusses the presence of Buddhism in Kashmir before the fourth century B.C. by employing the reference from Mulasarvastivadavinaya. This narrative is actually similar to that found in Mahavamsa and Si Yu Ki with a slight difference of nomenclature of the Buddhist Arhat and Naga king. He also talks about the Buddhist Stupas built by Asoka, fourth Buddhist council under Kushanas and the composition of commentaries on three baskets of Buddhism called Vaibhasikas. He also informs us that before the fifth century A.D. there is no firm evidence to refer the activity in the domain of Hinduism. He also negates the presence of Saivism in Kashmir since the earlier times as referred by Kalhana, on the basis not firmly substantiated by other sources. He talks about the Agraharas (land grants) given to Brahmans, material manifestation of Brahmanical religion. Besides it, he also talks about the Trika, Kaula and the cult of Tripurasundari in Kashmir and finally the impact of Islam on then religious milieu.

Kashmir Shavaism

鈥淜ashmir Shavaism鈥� is written by a famous Bengali Sanskritist namely Jagdish Chandra Chatterji and is one among the earliest texts written on Trika Saivism in the English language. This work briefly discusses history and literature, and predominantly the philosophy of Trika Saivism. It thoroughly discusses the nature of ultimate reality and its two aspects universal and transcendental. It also discusses in detail the process of universal manifestation of ultimate reality through thirty-six Tattvas in a descending fashion right from Siva Tattva down to Prithvi Tattva. Jagdish Chandra Chatterji is the first scholar who invoked the notion to refer Trika Saivism as Kashmir Saivism, but he didn鈥漷 mention in what sense he is subscribing to this specific nomenclature, thus, gave birth to a notion that perhaps Trika Saivism was indigenous to Kashmir, without any linkage or influence from other religious traditions and philosophies.

An Introduction to the Philosophy of Trika Saivism

鈥淎n Introduction to the Philosophy of Trika Saivism鈥� is a work written by a philosopher Moti Lal Pandit, a living authority on the same tradition. This work is very useful for common readers who wish to understand the various aspects of Trika Saivism in a simplistic language. The work strongly challenges the notion to call Trika Saivism as Kashmir Saivism. He argues that to refer this tradition with such a nomenclature is a very recent invention of Jagdish Chandra Chatterji. This leads one to interrogate and raise a critical question on the indigenous nature of Kashmir or Trika Saivism? Besides these things the work at the very outset offers a broader overview about the theology, philosophy and literature of this tradition. It also talks about the various aspects of Trika Saivism like theory of knowledge, what is Trika鈥檚 take on the nature of 鈥淎bsolute鈥� or ultimate reality, theory of cosmic manifestation or Abhasavad, liberation according to Trika and the means which Pandit calls methods (though both are slightly different) to attain it. The strength of the work is that it offers a very simplistic explanation on the difficult Philosophical questions of Trika Saivism.

The Doctrine of Vibration

鈥淭he Doctrine of Vibration鈥� is a work written by a famous indologists, Mark S.G. Dyczkowski. This work initially discusses the socio-cultural milieu of Kashmir during ancient times and the advent of Trika Saivism in the same. It further discusses the difference of Tantras to which Trika believes, with other alternate Tantric categories like Saivasiddhanta, Bhuta and Garuda Tantras, Vama Tantras, Bhairava Tantras etc. The work also discusses the various philosophical aspects of Trika Saivism especially the aspect of Spanda or vibration which according to it, is, nature of 鈥渦ltimate reality.鈥� One of the significant information which the work offers us is that the Trika which Abhinavagupta practised was not indigenous to Kashmir. However, he doesn鈥漷 makes it clear weather he is using the word Trika in the context of religious tradition or as one of the seven Acaras (code of conduct) prescribed to follow Trika Saivism/Tantricism.

Saivagamas

鈥�Saivagamas鈥� is a work written by a Kashmiri historian Vishva Nath Drabu. The work opens with a debate on Tantrism in which author puts before the readers both AntiTantric and Pro-Tantric views of various scholars. It also discusses the nature and history of various Agamas or Tantras. The work further discusses the various aspects of Tantric Saivism like Diksa or initiation, teacher-student relation, nature of various Acaras, rituals, Saiva doctrines etc.

Abhinavagupta: An Historical and Philosophical Study

鈥淎bhinavagupta: An Historical and Philosophical Study鈥� is a work written by a famous philosopher, Kanti Chandra Pandey. This book is based on one thousand and twelve pages and does not only revolve around the various aspects of Abhinavagupta鈥檚 life and his contribution, but contains description on literature, history, philosophy, and thinkers of Trika Saivism. Besides it, the work also contains description on the history of Tantras, various non-dualistic Tantric schools, various dualistic Saiva schools, their literature and thinkers. Hence, it would not be wrong to call it an encyclopaedic work. One of the most important debates which this text invokes, is, pushing the historicity of Trika Saivism in fourth century A.D. when nondual Tantras were given to Trayambaka, rather than in mid-ninth century A.D. when Siva Sutras were revealed to Acarya Vasugupta.

Lal Ded

鈥淟al Ded鈥� by Jayalal Kaul is a meticulously researched work on Lal Ded published by Sahitya Akademi. At the very outset of the work the author tries to bring into front the various legends both in orality and in Persian literary tradition about the existence, historicity and tradition of Lal Ded. It negates the various dates associated to her existence and offers 1300-1391A.D. as the plausible one. The work also talks about how and why the Sanskrit chroniclers like Jonaraja, Srivara, Prajyabhatta and Shuka didn鈥漷 give her space in their writings. Similarly, he informs us that how she was assigned a place by Muslim Persian hagiographers in their writings and how she got appropriated within the fold of Islam. The work also offers an English translation of Lal Ded鈥檚 Vaakhs (poetic quatrains), but full Kashmiri version of Vaakhs are not given, rather only the first line out of four lines is given. The work also critically evaluates the various modern writings on Lal Ded and how she has been misunderstood and misrepresented by various scholars especially G.M.D Sufi and R.K Parimoo.

Looking Within: Life Lessons from Lal Ded

鈥淟ooking Within: Life Lessons from Lal Ded鈥� is a work written by historian namely Shonaleeka Kaul. This work briefly discusses the history of Lal Ded and offers brief description of the religious tradition (Trika Saivism) to which she belongs in the very prologue. The main contents of the work only offers English translations to Lal Ded鈥檚 Vaakhs which are divided by the author to represent four phases of Lal Ded鈥檚 spiritual journey-worldly illusion, search for ultimate reality, recognition of ultimate reality and the teaching of same Anubhav (experience) to the common people through her poetry. However, the book has translation errors of some Vaakhs, for example at the page fourteen the author translates the Kashmiri word Truk as Trika (which it didn鈥漷 really mean, rather the word means 鈥渃lever鈥� in Kashmiri language). This work also lacks historiographical approach in its compilation, hence seems to be written by a literary figure not by a historian.

Non-Conventional Sources: 

This category of sources generally include Poetry, Place names, Surnames, Oral sources etc. However, these sources are not usually employed by historians to reconstruct the past. But they carry very valuable information in doing the history of various aspects of the past which unfortunately are missing in the conventional source base. With regard to the present thesis, the researcher has subscribed to various place names prevalent in Kashmir to show up the influence of Zoroastrianism on Kashmiris since the ancient up to present times. Similarly, the poetry of Lal Ded has been used in comparison to the Sanskrit Slokas of Trika Saivism to show how she preached the same tradition through her Vaakhs.

Besides the above discussed sources (conventional and non-conventional) the present thesis has employed number of sources, more, from the above two categories, which will get reflect in the discussion of various chapters of the thesis. The above discussed sources of various kinds will not be employed and utilised separately rather in collaboration with each other. Such an approach will lead us towards critical, nuanced and objective analysis of the past, hence avoiding biased and partial information in particular source base. Not only this, it will also help us to explore those areas which otherwise stand less explored or un-explored so far.