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Forts as a primary means of self-preservation appears to be as old as civilisation itself. A peep in-to the history fortification reveals that their of association with the war-machine had entrusted these with a significant role throughout the evolutions of human history. Success in war often depended on the number of forts a king was in possession of and for a great many Century, 'it continued till the invention of aeroplanes and other engines of 1 destruction'. True it is that the efficacy of forts has been minimised so much so as to render these obsolete now a days. Nevertheless, the study of the evolution and development of forts as a prized mechanism of war, remains ever edifying. And similar is the case with Castrametation, which often formed a part of a fort itself. An attempt is being made in this chapter to present a viable picture of forts and fortifications in the Indian context as revealed from Samrajya-lakshmi-pithika, in a historical manner. 1. Cf. Mortimer Wheeler in Introduction to AIW ..p.119.

498 Antiquity: From the proofs that obtain through a perusal of the Vedas with its corroborative evidences in the spadework of the archaeologist, the art of fortification does not seem to be so recent. M.M. Ghosh rightly observes 2 the origin of 3 fortification in the attempts of the pre-historic man to check the depredations of wild animals in to human habitations which often took the shapes of laying out a thorn-hedge, burning of fire around or raising a bank of earth. Kamlapur attributes their growth to the political factors large number of small principalities ruled by feudal heads and their engagement in guerilla warfare with one another for territorial ambitions and more power, which had precisely resulted in improving upon the old art of defence and rendering equal, a fort and a town. That pre-vedic time had seen the most important development in this regard no more remains a mere conjecture due to archaeological findings which reveal use of 'masonry' in that twilight period of human civilisation. 2. 3. 4. 4 M.M.Ghosh "Forts of Ancient India" P&T of AIOC, Baroda, 1933, pp 549-53. J.N.Kamlapur, The Deccan Forts, Bombay, 1961, Introduction. Mortimer Wheeler, Ancient India no. 3.p.59 records that Harappa and Mohenjodaro were dominated by massively fortified citadels.

499 Citing references from Rgveda, S.B.Singh argues that "such prehistoric discovery has also resulted in lending a character and reality" to the Rgvedic informations on fortification, "which were earlier considered mythical by scholars". 5 Besides references to forts in which Indra is exhorted to have rent the forts of the enemy (Rv 4.16.13) in Rgveda, we have another class of 'forts of avas' (Rv. 1.58.8) for the protection of which gods like Indra, are repeatedly invoked. That the specious habitations of the Rgvedic people were adequately fortified with asman (stone) (Rv 4.30.20), avas (reinforced with use of metal) (Rv. 1.58.8, 2.20.8 etc.), an ama (an unbaked brick-wall) (Rv 2.35.6) and dehi (defensive walls with pallisade and ditch) (Rv. 6.47.2), has led Singh to conjure prosperous picture of Ganges Velley " in which township up a there is growth of tacon ship under protection of a number of forts resulting in a great burgeoning of civil life ..." 6 Even Panini refers to town-planning, forts, 7 ramparts moats, gates and watch towers and the epics furnish a further corroboration of the Vedic and 5. 6. 7. S.D.Singh, AIN. ... pp. 123-124. Op cit Ebid p.131. V.S.Agrawal, Agrawal, p.137.

500 archaeological evidence. Mahabharata (1.999.29) contains a fullscale informations on fortification a full proof stronghold with lofty walls, gates, abundant stock of weapons etc. and Ramayana (1.5) speaks of protective measures of cities of Ayodhya, Kiskindha and Lanka. 8 The Nikayas and the Jatakas freely mention walled and battlemented - towns. 9 These references seem to testify to the uninterrupted line of tradition in which the art of fortification got evolved through the centuries till we arrive at the age of the Brahminical texts of early and later days. Manu - smrti and Artha sastra exclusively engage themselves on the topic of forts and fortification and serve as models for later writers of similar treatises like Sukraniti, Yuktikalpataru and Manasara which grew in the light of the former. Somadeva goes as far as to say that a king, without a fort has no refuge, like a bird, let loose from a ship in the mid-ocean (Nitikavyamrta, P.80] 8. 9. Ramayana mentions firm-gates (drdhadvara) of Ayodhya which are secured by cross-bars (argala) (Bala, 6.28 100.40). The city of Kiskindha has golden gates and is surrounded by a moat (Kiskindha, 14.5) and the fortifications of Lanka are repeatedly. mentioned, Prakarena pariksipta etc. (Aranya 48.11) See Singh, AIW.. P 132, Cowell, The Jatakas, Nos. 149,546,

501 The authors of Pancatantram (1.255) and (Sarangadharapaddhati (SDP) Ed. Peterson, p.220) go to the extent of stating that a king without a fort is compared to a snake without its poison (ous fangs) and an elephant without tusks'. With the growth of monarchy we observe the growth and importance of fortification and by the time of Shivaji, the great, forts have already come to tantamount to the general prosperity of a state (SamraiyalaksmI). 10 With these outlines about the antiquity and tradition of fortification we now propose to analyse allied material on forts and fortifications from Samrajya-lakshmi-pithika Closely following the rich tradition on the topic as reflected in theoritical brahmanical texts like Manusmrti, Arthasastra, Sukraniti and texts on archaeology like Manasara Manasara), Mayamata (Mantra-Mahodadhi) and Agastyasil pa (Ag), Samrajya-lakshmi-pithika elaborately deals with forts and the connected matter in eight Patalas (31.38).