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The Jaina categories or substances are broadly divided into two classes, viz., (a) extensive and (b) non-extensive. The extensive substances are known as 补蝉迟颈办腻测补. That means which possesses many 辫谤补诲别艣补蝉 (places). The non-extensive substance is known as an补蝉迟颈办腻测补. That which has only one 辫谤补诲别艣补 is called an补蝉迟颈办腻测补. Time or 办腻濒补 is the only one substance, which is devoid of extension.

The extensive substances are again divided into two classes, viz., (i) 箩墨惫补 (living) and (ii) a箩墨惫补 (non-living). Again, these two types of substances are known as cetanatattva and acetanatattva. The C膩rv膩kas identifies the self with the body endowed with consciousness. According to them, consciousness is manifested from earth, water, fire and air. By the conjunctions of these four 产丑奴迟补蝉, the 颈苍诲峁沬测补, 艣补谤墨谤补 etc. are manifested, and then consciousness is manifested from the combination of 颈苍诲峁沬测补, 艣补谤墨谤补 etc., just as intoxication is manifested from the combination of flour, water and molasses. So, consciousness is manifested from material elements (产丑奴迟补蝉). But the Jainas do not agree with the C膩rv膩kas. Prabh膩candra says that consciousness cannot be manifested from the four 产丑奴迟补蝉. It is always found in the 箩墨惫补 or self. To refute C膩rv膩ka views, Prabh膩candra asks whether this consciousness which is manifested from the elements is sat (existent) or asat (non-existent) or sadasat (both existent and non-existent). If consciousness is accepted as existent, then it must be 补苍腻诲颈 (beginningless) and ananta (endless). If it is said that previous non-existent consciousness is manifested, then that will be contradictory to our perception, since that which is totally non-existent is not perceived to be manifested later on. If on the other hand, it is accepted that consciousness which is somewhat existent and non-existent, then this will amount to accept the view of the Jainas themselves.

Some other C膩rv膩kas say that consciousness is not manifested but it is produced from these elements. The Jainas including Prabh膩candra refute this view also. Here the question is: what type of causality is accepted in case of the elements; is it material causality or efficient causality? It cannot be material causality. Material cause generally follows in the effect. As such the elements will follow in consciousness, just as gold follows in golden ornaments. But that is not possible. The elements possess qualities like colour etc. and have the nature of supporting, moving, flowing and warming, while consciousness possesses not of these. If, on the other hand, elements are the efficient cause, then there must some other material; cause. But there is no other thing from which consciousness can be produced. Hence, the view of C膩rv膩kas cannot be accepted.

Hence, 箩墨惫补 is identical with the self. It is the conscious spirit. The self or 箩墨惫补 is again divided into two classes, baddha and mukta. Baddhas are again subdivided into trasa and 蝉迟丑腻惫补谤补. A箩墨惫补 or non-living substance means the unconscious non-spirit. It is divided into five categories, viz., pudgala, 腻办腻艣补, dharma, adharma and 办腻濒补. These a箩墨惫补 dravyas are firstly divided into two categories, viz., 谤奴辫颈峁� and a谤奴辫颈峁�. R奴pi峁� means those which have form, such as pudgala. A谤奴辫颈峁� means those which have no form, such as 腻办腻艣补, dharma, adharma and 办腻濒补. The first four a箩墨惫补 substances, i.e. pudgala, 腻办腻艣补, dharma and adharma are called 补蝉迟颈办腻测补. Actually 补蝉迟颈办腻测补 substances are sub-divided into five classes, viz., 箩墨惫补 (self), pudgala (matter), 腻办腻艣补 (space), dharma (motion) and adharma (rest). These are called 辫补帽肠腻蝉迟颈办腻测补, which possess constituent parts extending in space; while time or 办腻濒补 is the only an补蝉迟颈办腻测补-dravya which does not have any extension in space.

According to another classification, dravya is of three kinds, viz., sak峁沬ya, ni峁�k峁沬ya and 蝉补办峁沬测补-苍颈峁�k谤颈测补. 厂补办峁沬测补 dravyas are those which have the capacity of moving from place to place, such as pudgala and 箩墨惫补. 狈颈峁�k峁沬测补-诲谤补惫测补 possesses the opposite nature of 蝉补办峁沬测补-dravya, such as 腻办腻艣补 and time. 厂补办峁沬测补-ni峁�k峁沬ya dravyas are those which move about themselves undergoing changes. Dharma and adharma are 蝉补办峁沬测补-nisk峁沬ya-dravya. Again, according to some, categories are of seven types, viz., 箩墨惫补, a箩墨惫补, 腻蝉谤补惫补, bandha, samvara, 苍颈谤箩补谤腻 and 尘辞办峁�a. Some others hold nine categories, by adding 辫耻峁噛补 and 辫腻辫补 to the foregoing seven. These nine categories are鈥�箩墨惫补, a箩墨惫补, 辫耻峁噛补, 辫腻辫补, 腻蝉谤补惫补, samvara, 苍颈谤箩补谤腻, bandha and 尘辞办峁�a. All of these categories are elaborately discussed in a latter chapter. Thus, substances are broadly divided into three categories: 1. First of all that which is purely conscious, such as 箩墨惫补. 2. Secondly that which are unconscious and has some form, such as pudgala. 3. Thirdly that which is unconscious and has no form, such as 腻办腻艣补, dharma, adharma and 办腻濒补. In the following lines, the extensive and non-extensive substances except the 箩墨惫补 are discussed one by one.

Concept of jiva or self is discussed in another chapter. Here, only the non-living substances, i.e., 腻办腻艣补, dharma, adharma, pudgala and 办腻濒补 are discussed briefly:

(i) 膧办腻艣补:

膧办腻艣补 is an 补蝉迟颈办腻测补 or extensive substance. 膧办腻艣补 has been accepted as space container of all other substances. That means, 腻办腻艣补 is that substance, which is capable of allowing space or 补惫补办腻艣补 for all the things that enter into it; all the things have 补惫补驳腻丑补 or entrance into 腻办腻艣补. As a matter of fact, 箩墨惫补, pudgala, dharma, adharma and 办腻濒补 all exist in space. For an example, while a swan enters into the water of a pond, then the swan has 补惫补驳腻丑补 into the water and the water gives him 补惫补办腻艣补 or space. That means, 腻办腻艣补 is the 腻诲丑腻谤补 of all the dravyas. 膧办腻艣补 includes dik in its category, because 腻办腻艣补 gives 补惫补办腻艣补 to all the things. Space in form of east, west etc. is based on the rise of the sun. For instance, the east is in the direction of sunrise. Hence direction like east etc. is produced by 腻办腻艣补 and is cognized therein. So, the Jainas hold that dik also comes under 腻办腻艣补. They do not agree with the Naiy膩yikas and the Vai艣e峁�ikas who maintain that dik is a separate substance. Prabh膩candra categorically says that there is no need to accept dik as a separate substance.

膧办腻艣补 is non-conscious, all-pervasive, eternal and formless. It has infinite number of 辫谤补诲别艣补蝉. 笔谤补诲别艣补 means part where 腻办腻艣补 is surrounded by many 辫补谤补尘腻峁嘘蝉. Each 辫谤补诲别艣补 has the capacity to give space to one smallest particle of each dravya, i.e., 箩墨惫补, pudgala etc.

According to the Vai艣e峁�ikas, 腻办腻艣补 is regarded as a material substance. 艢补产诲补 or sound is the quality of 腻办腻艣补, through which 腻办腻艣补 is known. It is one, allpervading and eternal. But the Jainas do not agree with the Vai艣e峁�ikas. They hold that 补惫补驳腻丑补 is the quality of 腻办腻艣补 and not 艣补产诲补. According to them, sound is a substance and not a quality. The 笔谤补尘别测补办补尘补濒补尘腻谤迟补峁囜笉补 offers inference to show that sound is a substance. The inference runs thus: sound is a substance, because the qualities of touch, 补濒辫补迟惫补-尘补丑补迟迟惫补-辫补谤颈尘腻峁嘺, 蝉补峁僰丑测腻, 蝉补峁儁辞驳补 etc. are found to stay in 艣补产诲补. All the things which possess qualities are known as dravyas. So, sound is also a substance.

Prabh膩candra, in his 笔谤补尘别测补办补尘补濒补尘腻谤迟补峁囜笉补 has clearly discussed these qualities of sound or 艣补产诲补 in detail for the establishment of sound as a substance not as a quality of 腻办腻艣补.

1. Firstly, Prabh膩candra says that the quality of sound is touch, because sound is the cause of 补产丑颈驳丑腻迟补 (beat) of other substances which is related with it like a staff. It is well-known fact that the sound of a vessel of brass being related with sound in general becomes the cause of 补产丑颈驳丑腻迟补 of ear. If it is not the quality of sound, then the 补产丑颈驳丑腻迟补 of ear is not possible. He also says that the substances which do not have the quality of touch, cannot have any relation of that substance with others, just as the 办腻濒补 which is devoid of touch, has no relation with any substance. So, sound or 艣补产诲补 is a substance. It is not the quality of 腻办腻艣补.

2. Secondly, Prabh膩candra argues that sound is a substance, because it is the locus of the quality of size like alpatva (smallness), mahattva (largeness) etc. Just as, smallness is found in the fruits like berry etc., similarly there is largeness and smallness in sound. So, 艣补产诲补 is not the quality of 腻办腻艣补.

3. Thirdly, he says that as 蝉补峁僰丑测腻 is a quality of sound, so it is a substance. Sound possesses number like one, two, many etc., just like gha峁璦, pa峁璦 etc. So, it is a substance not the quality of 腻办腻艣补.

4. Fourthly, 蝉补峁儁辞驳补 is the quality of sound, because it is seen that sound is obstructed by air just as sand, paper etc. are obstructed by air. When sand, paper etc. are connected with hand, air etc., then only these are seen to be obstructed. Similarly sound becomes obstructed by air, only when it comes in contact with air. Hence, conjunction is a quality of 艣补产诲补 and as such 艣补产诲补 is a substance.

5. Fifthly, Prabh膩candra argues that if 艣补产诲补 is accepted as the quality of 腻办腻艣补, then it will be something which is mediate (辫补谤辞办峁�a). 膧办补蝉补 is a 辫补谤辞办峁�a substance, whereas sound is known by perception and as such is immediate (辫谤补迟测补办峁�a). It is a fact that the qualities of 辫补谤辞办峁�a-dravya cannot be 辫谤补迟测补办峁�a, like the colour etc. of atoms. Hence, sound is only a substance and not a quality of 腻办腻艣补.

6. Sixthly, the Vai艣e峁�ikas hold that 腻办腻艣补 which is partless is the inherent cause of 艣补产诲补. Prabh膩candra here argues that if such is the case then 艣补产诲补 will also be allpervasive and eternal, being the quality of 腻办腻艣补, which is all-pervasive and eternal. But this is in contradiction to the view of the Vai艣e峁�ikas who hold that sound is momentary and remains in one part of 腻办腻艣补. In that case 腻办腻艣补 will be required to have various parts. In this way the view of the Jainas that 腻办腻艣补 is composed of parts is established.

7. Prabh膩candra also argues, if sound is the quality of 腻办腻艣补, then it will be not destroyed. But destruction of sound is admitted by the Vai艣e峁�ikas. Hence, 艣补产诲补 is not a quality but a substance. By inference also, the Jainas hold that 艣补产诲补 or sound comes under pudgala. Prabh膩candra says that 艣补产诲补 is a pudgala since it is perceived by us, is non-conscious and possesses action like arrow etc.

In this way, establishing that sound is a substance and not a quality of 腻办腻艣补. Prabh膩candra proceeds to establish that 补惫补驳腻丑补 is the quality of 腻办腻艣补, where all the things got space or 补惫补办腻艣补. But, the Vai艣e峁�ikas do not agree with Prabh膩candra. They argue that if all the things get 补惫补驳腻丑补 into 腻办腻艣补, then where does 腻办腻艣补 get 补惫补驳腻丑补? Prabh膩candra here replies that as 腻办腻艣补 is also an allpervasive substance, so the cause of 补惫补驳腻丑补 of it is 腻办腻艣补 itself. The substances which are not all-pervasive cannot have 补惫补驳腻丑补 in itself. Light (辫谤补办腻艣补) and darkness (补苍诲丑补办腻谤补) are not all-pervasive, so these cannot have own 补惫补驳腻丑补.

膧办腻艣补 is the cause of 补惫补驳腻丑补 of 辫谤补办腻艣补 and 补苍诲丑补办腻谤补. So, 补惫补驳腻丑补 or entrance is the quality of 腻办腻艣补 not 艣补产诲补 or sound.

膧办腻艣补 is of two types, viz., lok腻办腻艣补 and alok腻办腻艣补. Lok腻办腻艣补 is that where 箩墨惫补, pudgala, dharma, adharma and 办腻濒补 are exists; while, alok腻办腻艣补 is that which is beyond of this lok腻办腻艣补.

(ii) Dharma:

顿丑补谤尘腻蝉迟颈办腻测补 is the principle of motion. It is devoid of the qualities of taste, colour, smell, sound etc., which are the attributes of matter. Therefore, it is non-material. It is also non-conscious, like 腻办腻艣补; so, it is non-psychical.

Dharma is also all-pervasive. It is said to pervade the whole of the lok腻办腻艣补. It is an inactive substance. It is also formless. Though it is inactive, yet it helps the selves and the pudgalas for their movement from one place to another place. As a matter of fact, although the selves and matter have got the capacity of movement, yet they cannot move unless the medium of motion can help them for their movement. Dharma does not create motion, it only helps them. Just like, a fish swims in the river, but water does not create swimming, it only helps the fish to develop the tendency of swimming.

Dharma is of three kinds, viz., skandha, 诲别艣补 and 辫谤补诲别艣补. Dharma as a whole is known as skandha. A largest fraction of skandha is called 诲别艣补 and a smallest fraction of 诲别艣补 is called 辫谤补诲别艣补.

(iii) Adharma:

础诲丑补谤尘腻蝉迟颈办腻测补 is the principle of rest. Like dharma, it is also devoid of taste, colour, touch, smell etc., which are the attributes of matter. So, it is nonmaterial. It is also non-conscious like 腻办腻艣补, dharma etc.;so, it is non-psychical.

础诲丑补谤尘腻蝉迟颈办腻测补 is all-pervasive. It is an inactive entity. It is also formless. It is also said to pervade the whole of the lok腻办腻艣补, i.e., both dharma and adharma pervade the lok腻办腻艣补, just as oil pervades the whole of a mustard seed. Adharma helps the substances to take a rest. As a matter of fact, though it is an inactive entity, yet it helps the selves and the pudgalas when they take rest. The matter and the selves are stopped by themselves, but adharma or rest simply helps them in this act of stopping or resting, just as a tree is helpful to a person who comes from far distance in the hot sun, and wants to take some rest under it.

Like dharma, adharma is also of three kinds, viz., skandha, 诲别艣补 and 辫谤补诲别艣补. Adharma as a whole is called skandha. A largest fraction of skandha is known as 诲别艣补 and a smallest fraction of 诲别艣补 is called 辫谤补诲别艣补.

(iv) 碍腻濒补:

碍腻濒补 is the only an补蝉迟颈办腻测补 or non-extensive substance. Time or 办腻濒补 is an eternal, inactive and formless substance like 腻办腻艣补, dharma and adharma. Time is not perceived but only inferred. Continuance is the characteristics of time or 办腻濒补. Continuance, modification, movement, newness and oldness of substances are the functions or characteristics of time. Without time the continuance existension of a thing is not possible. The modification of a thing is created by time. Their movements also occur in time. The newness and oldness of a thing also depend on time. Hence, these are the functions or characteristics of time. So, it can be said that the existent of time can be inferred.

碍腻濒补 or time is of two types, viz., (i) param膩rtha办腻濒补 and (ii) vyavah膩ra办腻濒补. Param膩rtha办腻濒补 is also known as mukhya办腻濒补. Param膩rtha办腻濒补 is the auxiliary cause of continuance of substances, i.e., continuance is the function of mukhya or param膩rtha办腻濒补. While, vyavah膩ra办腻濒补 is the auxiliary cause of changes or modifications of substances, i.e., modifications, movements, newness and oldness are the functions of vyavah膩ra办腻濒补.

Mukhya or param膩rtha办腻濒补 is the material cause of vyavah膩ra办腻濒补, because, vyavah膩ra办腻濒补 has a beginning and an end. It is also consists of varieties of moments, such as, days, weeks, months, seconds, minutes, hours etc. All of these are not possible without the mukhya办腻濒补, i.e., mukhya办腻濒补 produce the vyavah膩ra办腻濒补, just like, without the existence of mukhya, the existence of 驳补耻峁嘺 is not possible. Param膩rtha办腻濒补 is of various kinds. It consists of minute particles. The universe is full of these particles of time. Every space-unit contains time-unit. No space-unit is devoid of it. So, it can be said that the particles of time are indivisible, innumerable and formless. In 笔谤补尘别测补办补尘补濒补尘腻谤迟补峁囜笉补, Prabh膩candra has quoted a line from 叠峁沨补诲诲谤补惫测补蝉补峁僩谤补丑补 of Nemicandra, where Nemicandra says that the particles of time exist one by one in each 辫谤补诲别艣补 of lok腻办腻艣补, just as the heaps of jewels exist one by one in jewels. Hence, time is not one, but it is an eternal and innumerable substance.