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Not only through trade routes, but the areas of Saka/Scythian and Saka-Pahlava influence were also connected through the spread of Buddhism. Inscriptions from Nagarjunakonda mention a lady named Camtisiri as a major donatrix, requesting for nirvana in return for charitable acts. This was a Mahayana practice also known from some early inscriptions from Taxila. A composite animal² from a Nagarjunakonda frieze reveals Saka/Scythian influence as also the well-known Scythian type guardian figure on a pillar³ from Nagarjunakonda. 1 Ibid., p. 46. 2 Elizabeth Rosen Stone, The Buddhist Art of Nagarjunakonda, New Delhi, 1994, p. 69. 3 Ibid., Fig. 232.

230 Not only at Nagarjunakonda but the terracotta art of Chandraketugarh also reflects Saka/Scythian influences in some of its forms and motifs.1 The Western Kshatrapas of Saka-Pahlava descent ruled Gujrat for some time during the first to fourth centuries A.D. Present Gujrat is not only geographically a compact unit but the settlements and material culture are also distinct from other areas of India.2 Some modern day handicrafts of this area show traces of the nomadic influence. The nomadic style had left its influence on the folk idiom. Kutch is noted for its fine gold craft. Kutch workshops still fabricate ornaments using the ancient methods of granulation (also practised by the Scythians) and encrustation. A pair of gold hanging earrings (Plate 228)³ from Kutch of rather large dimensions, continues the nomadic form of crescents decorated with gold globules and wire. The horned-plquette design revisits Gujrati earrings. The Gujrati specimen closes on hinges, but when the hinge is opened, the entire earring spreads in the form of the typical Scythian horned-plaquette. A striking pair ¹E.Haque, Chandraketugarh, Studies in Bengal Art Series, No. 4, Dhaka, 2001, p. 88. 2 A.G.Irani, 'Archaeology of the Settlement of the Kshatrapa Period', Puratattva, 1997-98, No. 28, p. 77. 3 Ear Ornaments of Ancient India, p. 317, Fig. A 12.57. 4 Ibid., p. 310, Fig. A 12.33, the 2 nd example.

231 of silver discal earrings (Plate 229)¹ from Gujarat depicts four birds around the central disc and is reminiscent of the animal style. The intricate jewellery of the various semi-nomadic herders like the Kanbe farming caste and also the Muslim herders called the Barri Kutch made use of the above techniques. They still wear the hansli torque made of coiled spring like wire. Also similar to the Saka/Scythian jewellery are the silver tiger' anklets (Plate 213) worn by the Bharhard herder women of Saurashtra,² either made locally or in Mumbai. Ornaments of Rajasthan and Maharashtra³ show the partial continuation of Saka/Scythian jewellery forms and techniques. These include spiked silver bracelets from Rajasthan and armlets of silver and dyed cotton threads, known as bajubandh which are still worn by the women of the Meena and Jat communities of Rajasthan. Boat-shaped earrings transformed into traditional Jaipuri and Punjabi 'Makris', are still a popular type of ear ornaments. Lunate, 4 crescent and boat-shaped earrings are still in use in Rajasthan and they all reflect the ancient nomadic forms. Hanging 1 Ibid., p. 307, Fig. A 12.24, the 2 nd example. ² Play Cooper, John Gillow, Arts and Crafts of India, Thames and Hudson, 2001, p. 84, PL. 64. 3 Ibid., p. 84, Pls. 65-68. 4 Ear Ornaments of Ancient India, p. 311, Fig. A 12.35.

232 gold earrings are still in use in Barmer, Jaisalmer. In modern Rajasthani jewellery, several items continue the nomadic tradition. Stylised elephants and mythical animals are still depicted on Rajasthani bracelets. Geometrical motifs, such as triangles, dotted lines, dots and circular bands continue to decorate bangles and head jewellery from Rajasthan.2 Rajasthani pendants enameled with stylised birds³ and necklets with flower, almond, leaf, and lemon-shaped designs reveal the Saka/Scythian influence. Individual units of motifs 5 of the Jaipur enamelled jewellery again are reminiscent of the nomadic style. Gold enamelled phalas or ornaments worn on the side of the head, from Jaipur show the Saka/Scythian influence. A head of Siva from Kalyanpur, Udaypur District, Rajasthan, preserved in the Pratap Museum, Udaypur, has an interesting ear ornament. The sculpture is of black schist and belongs to the sixth century A.D. On the right ear the obverse face of the earring depicts a young woman, probably a princess with attendant figures. One of them include a dwarfish man with a bent staff and peaked cap 7 recalling the nomadic cap. Necklaces (Plate 214) of linked silver chains, with 1 Ibid., p. 316, Fig. A 12.46. 2 Folk and Tribal Designs of India, Pl.54. 3 Ibid., Pl. 55. 4 Ibid., PL. 58. 5 Indian Jewellery, p. 92, Fig. 1; p.98, Figs. 1-13. 6 Ibid., p. 101, Figs. 1-5. 7 Ear Ornaments of Ancient India, p. 118, Fig. V.49; p.119, Figs. V.50, V.51.

233 bells from Maharashtra," and bracelets (Plate 215) of linked silver repousse work from South India² all reflect Saka/Scythian elements as found from both the western and eastern sections of the Scythian art. Specimens of soapstone rosettes with a beaded margin found in Prabhas Patan (Somnath, Junagadh District, Gujarat) were actually covered with gold foil reminiscent of the Tillya-tepe gold rosette plaques.³ Gold plated earrings from Prabhas Patan Period III and a pulley-shaped jasper ear-stud having a gold plate with a repousse pattern are reminiscent of the Saka/Scythian technology. During the Sunga-Satavahana period of ancient Indian history, the variety and amount of jewellery found on deities was at its peak. 5 A few Satavahana jewellery moulds from Ter are stylistically similar to those found at Taxila.7 In the early eighties of the last century some beautiful oval-shaped terracotta earrings were found at Ter ( Osmanabad District ). They are now kept at the State Museum, Ter. A round pendant (probably part of an earring) in beigeterracotta shows a herd of elephants in different postures around a big Ilay Cooper, John Gillow, op.cit, p. 84, PL 67. 2 Ibid., p. 84, Pl. 68. 3 M.K.Dhavalikar, Satavahana Art, New Delhi, 2004, p. 103. 4 Indian Archaeology, 1956-57, p.17, PLXVIIIA. 5 Ear Ornaments of Ancient India, p. 2. 6 M.K.Dhavalikar, op. cit., Pl. LIX, LX. 7 Taxila, Vol. II, p.507.

234 tusker ( facing the viewer ). The style of the pendant (Plate 232)¹ is reminiscent of the animal style. The elephants have been shown in a vivid manner in all sorts of positions in two concentric rows around the tusker. Small terracotta plaques having a similar subject (i.e. elephants at Ter) have been found at Ahichchhatra from the Satavahana period.2 Two crescent type earrings (Plate 231)³ from Ter attest to the nomadic influence. Cubic stone moulds from Ter show the carving 'en creux', into which crescent earrings were made either of thin repousse metal, or perhaps terracotta. The moulds (Plate 230) are presently in the Ter Museum. Terracotta conical earrings are found from the site at Bhokardan, Maharashtra. They belong to the post-Satavahana period. Whether these conical earrings can be associated with the nomadic conical caps is a matter of conjecture. G. B. Deglurkar classifies some of the hollow cones (similar to the conical earrings) without a hole as gamesmen. He reports that seven gamesmen were excavated in Period IA (second to third century B.C.), 24 in IB (first century B.C. to second/third century A.D.), and 12 in Period II 1 Ear Ornaments of Ancient India, p. 18, Fig. I. 19. 2 V.S.Agrawala, op.cit., p.162. ³ Ear Ornaments of Ancient India, p. 27, Fig. 1.30. 4 S Ibid., p.27, Fig. 1.28. G.B.Deglurkar, Excavations at Bhokardan, 1973, Fig. 30, Nos. 45-52. 6 Ibid., p. 161, Fig. 32, Nos. 1-18.

235 (post-Satavahana till the third century A.D. onwards) while all the other earrings (cones with holes) were excavated during Period II. Reel or amphora type terracotta earrings could be a development from the conical shaped earrings. The former type of earrings can be still seen in Himachal Pradesh. Interestingly, crescent-shaped terracotta terracotta earrings earrings were found from Bhokardan (Aurangabad District), recording the largest findings.¹ They belong to the Satavahana period and perhaps Bhokardan was a manufacturing site. During the early centuries of the Christian era, the coastal region of Western India became the focus of two major political powers, the Satavahanas and the Saka-Kshatrapas of Western India². One of the dynasties of the Saka-Kshatrapas of Western India, known by their coins and inscriptions displaced the Satavahana for some time between the first and second centuries A.D. These Sakas are known as the Ksaharatas. At Sambhar a plaque depicting a mythological scene and a Kirttimukha made in gold leaf was found.³ Brahmapuri hoards have yielded the largest number of copper and bronze objects revealing a highly advanced technique of metal 2 S.B.Deo, R.S.Gupte, Excavations at Bhokardan, 1974, Pl. XLIII. C.Margabandhu, Archaeology of the Satavahana Kshatrapa Times, Delhi, 1985, p. 4. 3 Ibid., p.77.

236 work.¹ Among the objects, a wine jug with a trefoil rim and a lion face handle has been found. The disc on which the lion's paw rests has traces of silver inlay in the pattern of tendrils surrounding the paw. It was originally soldered to the jug. A small vessel and its cover at Brahmapuri² has been engraved with the motif of galloping horse, panther and a bear, a lion, a winged mythical creature with eagle's beak, acquatic birds like geese and strange fish-shaped motifs. A repousse plaque of a mythical lion with beaked eagle's head (perhaps a decorative piece) was also found from the Brahmapuri hoard. Spouted pots with and without handles and having animal-shaped spouts were found from Sisupalgarh, Paunar and Maheshwar dated in the second century A.D.³ Spouts in the form of bird's beaks were also found. Devnimori and Rangmahal have also yielded similar utility vessels. May be they were of specialized use on certain occasions.4 Decorative timberwork of Punjab and Kangra manufactured in the form of doors, door-surrounds, carved beams reflect nomadic traits. The brackets (Plate 217) supporting the projecting balconies have intricately I ' Ibid., p.78. 2 Karl Khandalawala, Lalit Kala, 7, 1960, Pl.XIX, F 26-31,Pl.XX,32.4. 3 C.Margabandhu, op.cit., pp. 126-127. * Ibid., p.127.

237 interwoven struggling animal forms.¹ They belong to the medieval period or just earlier. These wooden brackets betray the nomadic influence. In Rajasthan, in the Shekhawati region and in some parts of Gujrat, wooden brackets (similar to the wooden reliefs of Pazyryk and Kuturguntas) are still used as architectural elements, and are strikingly similar to those found from Tibet (fragments of wooden doorways dated in the eleventh to twelvth centuries A.D.) Carved wooden pillars² from Gujrat with floral, animal and curving tendril designs somehow enmeshes the nomadic style. Also wooden architectural elements (Plate 218) carved in the form of a horse and a lion (especially the lion in a square niche,³ with curled tails) from Saurashtra, Gujrat, reflect the nomadic style. A bidri-ware (bowl with a silver inlay) made in Bidar in the nineteenth century shows the design of concentric circles with swarming fishes around a central floral disc.4 It is reminiscent of the bowl designs from Scythia. The manufacture of bidri-ware in Bidar was a local tradition during the 15 th century; it is known that local rulers summoned metal workers from Persia (from where some nomadic elements or strains communicated). Incidentally, Play Cooper, John Gillow, op.cit., p.32. 2 Folk and Tribal Designs of India, Pl. 68. Ilay Cooper, John Gillow,,op.cit., p. 53, Pls. 40, 41. 3 * Ibid., p. 61.

238 in Hyderabad, there is a Irani gali (lane of the Iranis), where workers beat the basic shape out of brass sheets and then decorate them with repousse designs. Ornaments manufactured at Mumbai (earlier known as Bombay) and Kolkata (earlier known as Calcutta) also depict the ancient nomadic motifs and techniques. Bonding minute spheres of gold to a gold surface or simply granulation is still a favourite technique of the gold-smiths. On the other hand, repousse (from the French "thrust back") in relief on thin metal beaten up from the reverse side, is another favourite. Necklaces made in Kolkata and Mumbai, still contain motifs which have been earlier encountered at Taxila (Plate 219)¹ and elsewhere in the nomadic world. This is apparent in the manufacture of gold necklaces (jalli) at Mumbai. The latter is characterized by square gold plaques, chased and ornamented with fine granulated work and united to the other by gold links and open-work pendants at the bottom.2 Nomadic style is also apparent in the silver anklets and bracelets of open work design (and a ring of ball ornaments round the perimeter), from Mumbai.³ Ornaments manufactured at Kolkata continue to 1 2 Indian Jewellery, Pl. XXIV, No.2. Taxila, Vol. III, Pl. 193, nos. 56, 57, 58. 3 Rustam J.Mehta, op. cit., Pl. XI, No.3.

239 reflect the nomadic tradition and style. Nepali Har,1 a type of necklace, consists of interlinked gold beads of various shapes (Plate 220) recalling Saka/Scythian types. Gold bracelets with makara head terminals (Plate 221) 2 obviously attest to the nomadic style. Small gold plaques (Plate 222) of various shapes³ are used by the gold-smiths of Kolkata for the manufacture of small ornaments and parts of ornaments. Most of these motifs have been found in both the western and eastern sections of the Saka/Scythian art. A type of bracelet (known as chur in Kolkata) has the trefoil pattern framed (Plate 223 A) in a row. Various arm ornaments from Kolkata continue reflecting (Plate 223 B) the popular nomadic motifs. The trefoil plaques have been extensively found at Tillya-tepe. A jeweller's mould 5 of cast brass (Plate 224) is an interesting specimen depicting various motifs which have been deeply incised. It belongs to the twentieth century India. When a gold-smith needs to produce endless identical repetitions of small motifs, he may use a mould, hammering sheet gold or silver into a preformed depression on the metal block. This mould is probably as attractive as the jewellery it produced. 1 J.K.Das and Co. No. 34, Calcutta, Cat. No.207. 2 Ibid., Cat. No. 308. 3 Ibid., Cat. No. 365. Ibid., Cat. No. 328. S A Golden Treasury, Victoria and Albert Museum, London, 1988, PL 125.

240 On careful consideration the Saka/Scythian motifs are thus found to have been embedded in Indian culture. Even the popular apparel of salwarkameez (this type of costume is popular throughout India and amongst Indians living abroad), with its tunic and baggy pant, reflect the nomadic attire. As seen, jewellery, of various forms and style continue to reflect the usages of the ancient nomadic motifs. Throughout the medieval and early modern period the nomadic motifs continued in Indian jewellery and metal craft. The motifs still continue in the modern period. Not only in jewellery but also in Indian textiles (produced from various states) the nomadic motifs percolate. An interesting brass lamp shade which I had bought from Uttar Pradesh shows nomadic affiliations. It is similar to the openwork coneshaped head-dress from Ak-Burun barrow.¹ Going back to the north-west, (the region of transit of so many Indian' idioms) various objects still in use in the Swat valley, reflect the animal style. Some specimens are kept in the Linden Museum and they attest to the continuation and perhaps the recreation of the Scythian art. These consist of 1 Scythian Art, Pl. 229.

241 wooden livestock amulets,¹ bells, simple everyday objects, and tools, like a drumstick, a catapult, a spindle, and a hammer. These are decorated by the carvers as if in homage to the Saka/Scythian art of the eighth century B.C. to the fourth century A.D. The small selection of medicine spoons² from Swat are impressive evidences (Plate 225) that such items need not be boring; the individuality and creativity in the treatments of the handles is notable. Large wooden ladles, with floral and geometric decorations, ³ also reflect the nomadic style. Ornaments like wrought silver neck rings with engraved and punched geometric decorations, earrings, arm-rings from Swat reveal the Saka/Scythian elements. The component parts of pectoral ornaments (Plate 226)4 found from the Swat valley echo the Saka/Scythian elements. Thus, these objects and tools were decorated by the carvers with the imagery of the Saka/Scythian art of the eighth century B.C. to the fourth century A.D. The treatment of the individual tools, and their handles are an I Johannes Kalter, The Arts and Crafts of the Swat Valley. Living Traditions in the Hindu Kush, Thames and Hudson, 1991, p. 12, Fig.7. 2 Ibid., p.13, Fig. 9. 3 Ibid., p. 12, Fig. 6. 4 * Ibid., p. 102.

242 object lesson for designers. Their technique was steeped in the nomadic tradition, and at the same time it suited their practical functions. Animal amulets with geometric and simple plant motifs, rosettes and stylized ram's horns still continue. In other areas of the subcontinent the ram's heads gradually disappears, as it loses its shamanistic symbolism and seance.¹ In India, ram's horns or stags are less common in the later period. In the early Scythian period, Siberian shamanism dominated. There the shamanistic seance was a symbolic journey in which the shaman becomes a horned animal (a deer or a reindeer) in order to restrain his animal wife, the daughter of the spirit of the forest.2 This deer motif therefore ceased to be irrelevant in the Indian context. Thus, we are seeing new phenomena or simply seeing the ancient Saka/Scythian repertoire with a repertoire with a new vision. The obvious courage of treatment that so delights us and which only the large perception of the nomadic world can inspire continues to be felt fairly strongly indeed in Indian art. 1 Gilles Boileau, Wu and Shaman', Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies, Vol.65, part 2, London, 2002, p. 353. 2 Ibid., p. 353.