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CHAPTER XVIII THE MAIN SOURCE OR SOURCES OF CANONICAL PRINCIPLES DISCERNED IN THE EXTANT TEMPLES OF GUJARAT In the foregoing chapters the different stages and parts of temple architecture found in the old extant structutral temples of Gujarat have been noticed one by one and an attempt is made to trace the canonical principles of temple architecture discerned in them. It will now be interesting to sum up the observations pertaining to different subjects mentioned above and to investigate on the basis of their co-ordination whether the architects of the temples of the different periods seem to have followed the canons given in any particular canonical work or works popular in Western India. As regards the selection of the site for a temple most of of the pre-canonical as well as the canonical works on architecture recommend almost the same types of sites. The sites of the old extant temples in Gujarat are in accordance with these recommendations, especially those given in Brhat Sarhhita , Bhavisya Purana among the early works and Aparajitapriccha among the canonical works. As for the orientation of temples the canonical works seem to follow the canons given in the early works to a large extent. However there are some variations in the case of temples of certain deities. The orientation of the Sun temples in Gujarat is confirmed by the Aparajitapriccha rather than by the early works. The orientation of the temples of Brahma and Siva confirms the canons given in the early as well as the canonical works. The orienation of the temples of Visnu however is not in full

478 The Structural Temples of Gujarat accordance with any of these works popular in Western India. It is curiously found reflecting the canons of the Manasara of South India. The orientation of the temples of goddesses is conspicuous by its absense in the texts of North India, while it is confirmed by the Southern texts only to a small extent. It may be noted here that among the canonical works on architecture Samarangana Sutradhara passes over such general topics which are treated in detail in Aparajitapriccha As to the groundplan of the garbhagriha, the pre-Caulukyan temples strickly follow the shapes ( square, rectangular etc. ) prescribed by the early works. But the star-shaped ground plans. formed by the addition of lateral projections in the Caulukyan temples is met with only in the canonical works. The projections are prescribed in the Samarangana Sutradhara but they are treated more technically in the Aparajitapriccha which is followed by Pasada-mandana Dipa. and other later works. The position of the doors, their ratio of height and breadth and forms of jambs (3, 5, 7, 9) etc. propounded by early works have been maintained by Samarangana Sutradhara and other canonical works. But its decorative aspects are described more elaborately in Aparajitapriccha These details are well reflected in the extant temples of Gujarat. The early works have described a group of 27 varieties of Mandapas. Samarangana Sutradhara adds a group of 8 varieties to it. The mandapa of the pre-Caulukyan temples illustrate a variety which occurs in the group added by Sm Su. The mandapas of the Caulukyan temples give many more varieties some of which can be identified with some of those added in Aparajitapriccha Some of the pre-Caulukyan temples of Gujarat contain a porch, some contain a mandapa and some contain both. The early works make a passing reference to the Mukhamandapa but contain no description of the mandapa proper. Samarangana Sutradhara follows the reference to the mukhamandapa

The Main Source or Sources of Canonical Principles 479 and also gives a special treatment of the mandapa. Thus the pre-Caulukyan temples reflect the canons given in Samarangana Sutradhara Some of the Caulukyan the Caulukyan temples contain one or three ardhamandapas added to their mandapas. These are treated in detail under the head of Trikamandapa in Aparajitapriccha The Subhadra variety found in the Brahmnical temples and even the other varieties like Kiriti, Pranta etc. are treated elaborately in Aparajitapriccha A number of the old temples in Gujarat contain pradaksinapathas. The early works make a reference to the pradaksina patha but ratio of its width is met with only in Samarangana Sutradhara and other canonical works. Ratios found in the extant temples well apply to those prescribed in Samarangana Sutradhara and Aparajitapriccha as well. In the case of the vertical treatment of the base some of the pre-Caulukyan temples contain certain mouldings. The early works are silent on this topic. The Samarangana Sutradhara prescribes some mouldings of the base but they hardly apply to the extant temples of the pre-Caulukyan or even of the Caulukyan period. The mouldings in the pre-Caulukyan temples are hardly traceable to any wellknown works prevalent in Gujarat. The mouldings in the Caulukyan temples are well confirmed by the canons laid down in Aparajitapriccha The same is the case with the vertical treatment of the mandovara. The mandovara of the pre-Caulukyan temples is mostly plain. It probably reflects its simple treatment in the early works. The Samarangana Sutradhara specifies some mouldings of the mandovara but they are not found illustrated in the temples of Gujarat. The various mouldings in the Caulukyan temples are in full accordance with those prescribed in Aparajitapriccha The Sikharas of the pre-Caulukyan temple are of the stepped pyramidal shape, gradually displaying a transition to the curvilinear shape. Early works prescribe the height of the sikhara but are mostly silent about its shape. The Guruda Purana however, refers to the curvilinear shape of the Sikhara. The treatment of the stepped pyramidal Sikharas is given only in the Samarangana Sutradhara which describes it as the Chadya type.

480 The Structural Temples of Gujarat Aparajitapriccha which gives a more elaborate treatment of the curvilinear spire is entirely silent about the pyramidal superstructure. It obviously indicates that the pyramidal form of the superstructure which was in vogue in the pre-Caulukyan period got out of date at the time of Aparajitapriccha Thus the type of the pyramidal superstructure of the pre-Caulukyan temples is met with in the Samarangana Sutradhara The Sikhara of the Caulukyan temples is curvilinear in shape. Among early works the G. P. deals with this shape and gives the method for arriving at it, but the description of the method is wanting in details. The Samarangana Sutradhara also describes the curvilinear spire as Sikharanvita Sikhara and refers to several varieties of it. But a full treatment of the curvilinear type especially specification of the Rekhas appears for the first time in Aparajitapriccha which adds several varieties to those given in Samarangana Sutradhara From a comparative study of the different types of the Sikharas of the Caulukyan temples in Gujarat it is also gathered that only a few varieties of the temples apply to those given in Samarangana Sutradhara while almost all the variety correspond to those described in Aparajitapriccha The pillars in the pre-Caulukyan temples are generally square in shape and plain in design excepting the heavy brackets at the top. Early works as well as canonical works refer to some different shapes of pillars, such as square, octagonal etc. The simple treatment given in the early works implies the plainness of its design. The pillars in the Caulukyan temples are generally square (plain or facetted) or octagonal (plain or facetted) or more frequently composite in shape, displaying various permutations of shapes and embellished with several mouldings. Among these the simple shapes (square and octagonal) occur among those mentioned in the early works, but the facetted shapes are given only in the canonical works. The square facettled and the octagonal facetted shapes

The Main Source or Sources of Canonical Principles 481 are given in Aparajitapriccha which also recommends that the pillars may be embellished with several mouldings and decorations. Thus the pillars of the Caulukyan temples indicate full accordance with Aparajitapriccha The mandapas and porches of the pre-Caulukyan temples are covered with flat or pyramidal roofs. Early works make a passing reference to Ghanta and Vitanaka. Samarangana Sutradhara does not specifically describe the nature of the superstructure, but its treatment of the ceilings (Vitanas) impliedly applies to the pyramidal shape. The external form of the pyramidal roof of Caulukyan temples are specified as the Samvarna. The treatment of the Samvarna of the Caulukyan temples is met with in Aparajitapriccha Pre-Caulukyan temples contain no arches but they are introduced in some temples of the Caulukyan period. Among the early works the Meter P. makes a reference to it. Among canonical works they are referred in Samarangana Sutradhara , ARPR., Dipa etc. the architraves of the mandapa are plain in pre-Caulukyan temples aud decorated in some of the Caulukyan temples. The decorative treatment is recommended in Aparajitapriccha and later works. The Kaksasana seems introduced in Caulukyan period. Its treatment occurs in Aparajitapriccha and later works. The same applies to balconies also. The Sukanasa also seems introduced in the Caulukyan period, though early works referred to it. The Sukanasa is described in detail in the canonical works as well. As regards the Kirtitorana the early works and Samarangana Sutradhara make no reference to it. Aparajitapriccha gives a special treatment to it and Diparnava follows it. The treatment of the pillars of the

482 The Structural Temples of Gujarat torana as free standing pillars with their various mouldings is of course found in accordance with that of the pillars given in Aparajitapriccha The examples of the Prakara and the Balanaka are met with in temples (especially Jain) of the Caulukyan period. The early works and Samarangana Sutradhara make references to them while they are well treated in Aparajitapriccha and later works (especially Dipa ). Devakulikas are found introduced in some Jain temples of the Caulukyan period. Early works as well as Samarangana Sutradhara and Aparajitapriccha are silent about them. They are described in Vastusara of Thakkar Feru and some later works like Dipa etc. In the pre-Caulukyan temples decorative sculptures are generally found on and above the door lintel, on door jambs and on the external side of the walls, basements and the superstructure. These sculptures generally consist of figures of different deities. Early works recommend to decorate door-frames with particular types of sculptures but the types do not include figures of deities, 1 nor do they refer to decorate walls, pillars etc. with these figures. Samarangana Sutradhara recommends to decorate walls. of temples with figures of specific deities in the different directions, while it prescribes to decorate door-frames and ceilings with floral designs. Thus the pre-Caulukyan temples seem to have followed the traditions of decorative sculptures mentioned in early works and Samarangana Sutradhara as well. In Caulukyan temples the decorative sculptures are found on the basement, the wall face (mandovara) of the temple (including mandapa) and on the door-jambs, pillars and 1. The images of Surya, Navagrahas, Visnus etc. have been discussed by the early works in section on Iconography

The Main Source or Sources of Canonicial Principles 483 ceilings. The decorative sculptures are either (a) constructive (b) representative or (c) purely ornamental. The conventional representative sculptures consist of figures of gods and goddesses, historical personages, protrait sculptures, scenes from the Epics and Puranas, scenes from Jain mythology and scenes depicting social life etc. Some of these decorative sculptures occur among those prescribed in Sm Su. But the various features of decorative sculptures found in the Caulukyan temples indicate far more confirmation in Aparajitapriccha However, the elaborate and rather ornate style of temple architecture developed in Gujarat during the Caulukyan period has attained a considerable place in the temple architecture of India. But it is very difficult to trace how this style evolved and which persons or works contributed to its developments. A comparative study of the architectural form of the old extant structural temples of Gujarat with the traditions giveni n the early and canonical works on Indian architecture seems to give some hint about the close relation of the monuments with some particular works. From the results of the comparative study given above it seems that the architectural traditions discerned in the pre-Caulukyan temples are reflected in the early works only to a limited extent. The traditions are comparatively more closely related to more closely related to those given in the Samarangana Sutradhara which was of course composed about a century after the beginning of the Caulukyan period. The basic sources of this work may have belonged to the pre-Caulukyan period but they cannot be traced at present, probably, those sources may have served as a guide to the architects of the pre-Caulukyan temples. As regards the temples of the Caulukyan period the architectural traditions discerned in them are found reflected to a certain extent in Samarangana Sutradhara which was written in Malva on N. W. of Gujarat, during the early of the Caulukyan period.

484 The Structural Temples of Gujarat But the results of the comparative study given above lead us to conclude that the architectural traditions found in the monumental temples of the Caulukyan period bare comparatively greater affinity to those given in the Aparajitapriccha which seems composed during later half of the Caulukyan period. It is not known in which region the work was written but as the architectaral traditions of the Caulukyan temples are reflected in this work to a large extent it is probable that the work may have had a great bearing on architects in Gujarat. As regards the architects of the old extant temples in Gujarat the authorship of the pre-Caulukyan temples is found to be anonymous, while particulars about the architects are hardly available even in the case of the Caulukyan temples as well as post-Caulukyan temples. Even when some reference to the architect is available, it, throws no light on his heritage of the architectural traditions followed by him. Nor is any of the well known works on Indian architecture definitely known to have composed in Gujarat. The traditional rules and techniques evolved in the Caulukyan period have continued in Gujarat to some extent even up to present times.3 The architects and sculptors, who are known locally as Sompuras after the town of Somanath, have preserved a good deal of their heritage and 2. Exceptionally we get reference to the architects of a few monuments e. g. The Tejapala temple at Abu, the Vaidyanatha and Kalika mata temples at Dabhoi etc. 3. The richly ornamented temple Pancasara parsvanath temple at Patan in N. Gujarat and the celebrated temple at Somnath in Saurashtra, for instance, are constructed by Sompuras under the guidance of Shri Prabhashankar O. Sompura.

The Main Source or Sources of Canonicial Principles 485 are available even to-day for even to-day for building new temples and restoring old ones.* It will be interesting to note that mostly they follow the Aparajitapriccha and the Pasada-mandana which is based on it. Even the temples of the post-Caulukyan period, though lacking in the skill and grandeur of the monuments of the Caulukyan period, seem to follow the same traditions given in the Aparajitapriccha It is very difficult to determine the exact relations between techinques in practice and canons in theory but in this instance the probable relations discerned between them in the old extant temples of Gujarat, especially of the pre-Caulukyan and Caulukyan period leave an impression that the works like Samarangana Sutradhara and Aparajitapriccha probably present the architectural traditions evolved during the specific periods that preceeded the times of their composition. 4. The old Jain temples on Abu, Girnar, Satrunjaya and other places are not infrequently restored. The Vimala and Tajapala temples etc. at Abu for instance are at present being restored by Shri Amritlal Sompura and his assistance. On the basis of old works some recent works on architecture are also contributed by Sompuras. For examples (i) Brhadsilpa Pt. 1 (1931), || (1934), I (1936), by Jaganath Ambaram. II. Silparatnakara (1939) by Shri N. Meter Sompura, III. Diparnava (1960) by Shri P. O. Sompura.